"Answers to Readers' Questions: Nation and Nationality. (By I. Tsameryan. Bolshevik, No. 6, March 1951 [published in April] pp57‑62 Complete text:) We are replying to the questions of Comrades N. Basov (Kharkov), Pivovarov (Plast, Chelyabinsk Province), S. Kryukov (Leninakan, Armenian Republic) and V. Golubev (Petropavlovsk‑on‑Kamchatka) regarding the meaning of the term nationality, how it differs from the term nation and whether fusing of tribes and nationalities under the consolidation of socialist nations is take place in this country.

"The concepts of 'nation' and 'nationality' reflect the forms of social ties which bind people together at various stages of historical development. Nationality and nation are historical categories which came into being at different epochs.

"Production of material goods, of the means of existence, requires collective effort and cooperation. 'In waging the struggle with nature and usage nature in the production of material goods people do not function in isolation from one another but together, in groups and societies,' points out Comrade Stalin.⁠3 These groups of people e are variously formed at various stages of history. At the dawn of history, at the lowest stages of development of human society, people lived in small groups, like herds of man‑like apes; then there appeared collectives of people based on blood ties, family ties and relation­ships. The basic nucleus of the primitive communal system was the family clan — first matriarchal, then, at a higher stage, patriarchal. The tribe consisted of several closely related family clans. As the primitive community's productive forces developed, the organization our family clans, tribes and alliances of tribes became higher and more complex. At the highest  p296 stage of the primitive community there were formed more or less stable federations, confederations and alliances of related tribes.

"The primitive communal system broke up as a result of further development of productive forces, the rise of private property and inequality in property owner­ship; society split into antagonistic classes and the state arose. With the transition from primitive communal society to class society the nature of social ties and social relation­ships changed radically.

"Blood ties, formerly the chief condition for social groupings of people, were disrupted in the process of the rise of classes and the state. The primitive communal system had as its vital prerequisite the joint habitation of one and the same territory by the members of a single class or tribe. People belonging to various clans and tribes intermingled as a result of the appearance of private property and classes, the development of trade, alienation of land property, etc. The old clan's closed nature disappeared; blood ties ceased to be a necessary condition of social organization. A process of intermingling and using of class and tribes went on as the primitive communal system broke down.

"Tribes which fused into one people lost their separate, cut‑off existence. A people is not merely an alliance of tribes, but a merger of them in which the tribes are fused and lose their individuality and their own government, their lands are merged into one territory, and all the population of the merged tribes have a common government. At the time of Homer the Greek tribes were in most cases already united in small nationalities, within which clans and tribes still preserved their independence; later, instead of a simple alliance of tribes living alongside one another there came the merging of many tribes into the single people of Athens, with one common government, common laws and common territory.⁠4

"Thus, under favorable conditions of development tribes and nationalities merge and become more or less stable ethnographic and historical formations — single peoples, creating their own cultures and written literatures which fix their languages. Such, for example, was the Russian people in Kyiv⁠a and Muscovite Rus and the Chinese and other peoples in the era of the slaveholding and feudal system. Nationalities and peoples are communities which arise historically on the economic basis of precapitalist forms of production relations. The merging of tribes to form a single people, however, does not necessity signify complete disappearance of differences among tribes within this people; usually a certain degree of isolation of tribes within the peoples and nationalities is preserved for a carbine time, sometimes for entire centuries.

"The concept of a 'people' is also used in a wider sense — for example, we speak of the Soviet people, the peoples of the Soviet Union, the Russian, Georgian, Ukrainian and other peoples.

 p297  "The consolidation of nationalities and peoples into bourgeois nations takes place in the course of the rise and development of capitalism. However, in the epoch of capitalism and even in its by the and final stage, imperialism, there still remain in the colonial and dependent countries numerous tribes and nationalities which have lagged behind in their development as a result of colonial oppression and have not formed into nations. The imperialists pursue a policy of artificially retarding the economic, political and cultural development of colonial peoples, hindering their consolidation into nations.

"How does a nation differ from a nationality? The classic Marxist definition of nation, given by Comrade Stalin, says: '. . . the nation is a historically formed stable community, arising on the basis of community of four basic factors, namely, common language, common territory, common economic life and common psychological make‑up, manifesting itself in common peculiarities of national culture.'⁠5

"Revealing the meaning of the term nation, Comrade Stalin shows that a nation is not a racial or tribal community of people, but one which has taken shape historically. The nation is the product of a definite historical epoch; the epoch of rising capitalism, whereas the nationality is the product of precapitalist production relations. Supplanting of the feudal by the capitalist system signifies the consolidation of peoples and nationalities into bourgeois nations. The economic basis for the origin of bourgeois nations is thus capitalist production relations, whereas the economic basis for the origin of nationalities and peoples is precapitalist production relations. This si the first and decisive difference between a nationality and a bourgeois nation.

"Whereas the nation is based upon a stable community of economic life created by division of labor and the appearance of a national market, i.e., a constant and regular economic bond linking the separate parts of the nation into a single whole, nationalities have no such stable economic bond. This of course does not mean that nationalities do not have their own economic basis. It is simply that the historical features of precapitalist economic relations, such as feudal production relations, constituting the economic basis of nationalities and peoples that have not yet developed into nations, find expression in economic fragmentation and disunion of the people concerned.

"Characterizing the conditions of consolidation of the Great Russian people, V. I. Lenin pointed out that the establishment of national ties, of a national community, had capitalist production relations for its economic basis. Criticizing and exposing the antiscientific view of Mikhailovsky, who held national ties to be a continuation and generalization of clan ties, Lenin pointed out that only the modern period in Russian history (approximately since the 17th century) is marked by true fusion of the formerly disunited Russian provinces, lands and principalities into a single whole. This merger was called forth not by clan links and not by their continuation and generalization: 'It was called forth by the growing exchange among provinces, the gradually growing commodity  p298 turnover, the concentration of small local markets into one all‑Russian market. Since the directors and masters of this process were the capitalists and merchants, establishment of these national bonds was nothing but creation of bourgeois ties.'⁠6

"Developing this proposition of V. I. Lenin's, J. V. Stalin wrote: The process of liquidation of feudalism and development of capitalism is also a process the formation of nations.'⁠7 Thus, for example, the Georgians did not constitute a nation until the wherefore of the 19th century, since they were disunited, fragmented into many principalities and did not have a stable economic community. 'Georgia arose as a nation only in the second half of the 19th century, when the fall of serfdom and the growth of the country's economic life, development of means of transportation and the rise of capitalism episode division of labor among the provinces of Georgia and finally shattered the economic isolation of the principalities and linked them in a single whole. The same must be said of other nations which passed through the feudalism stage and developed capitalism within themselves.⁠8

"Nationalities and nations, as historically formed communities of people of the precapitalist epoch, have a definite community of language and territory and a certain community of economic life and psychological make‑up, manifesting itself in a common culture created by the nationality. As Comrade Stalin points out, the elements of the nation — language, territory, cultural community, etc. — did not fall from the skies, but were gradually established back in the precapitalist period. 'But these elements were in an embryonic state and at best constituted merely a potential, in the sense of the possibility of formation of a nation in the future under certain favorable conditions. The potential became reality only in the period of rising capitalism, with its national market, its economic and cultural centers.'⁠9 For example, community of language existed among tribes, peoples and nationalities long before the formation of nations, before the rise of capitalism. In the work 'Marxism and Problems of Linguistics' Comrade Stalin points out: '. . . when capitalism appeared and feudal disunity was overcome, when the national market was formed, nationalities developed into nations and the languages of nationalities into the languages of nations.'⁠10 Hence the language of the nation cannot be divorced from the language of the nationality and contrasted to it as an utterly new language. Comrade Stalin refuted the vulgarized, antiscientific mar theory of language as suru, The old superstructure is liquidated with liquidation of the old base, but the transition from language of a nationality to language of a nation takes place not through liquidation of the old and creation of a new language, but through long, gradual development, enrichment  p299 and improvement of the language, through dying out of old elements and accumulation of new elements. The language of a nationality, being a language common to the entire nationality, comprehensible to all, has its own offshoots in the form of local ('territorial') dialects. In the process of overcoming feudal disunity and development of capitalism these dialects are fused in the common national language and, melting in it, disappear. Thus, for example, the Russian national language existed long before the rise of capitalism. The foundation of the Russian national language was the Kursk-Orel dialect. In the process of development of the Russian people into a nation, the Russian language became a national language, into which were poured all the local dialects. This was a long, progressive process.

"The language of a nationality and people in the epoch of slavery and feudalism does not always find reflection in literature. But the language of a nation is a language common to the nation and fixed in literature. Lenin wrote 'Everywhere in the world the epoch of final triumph of capitalism over feudalism was connected with national movements. The economic basis of these movements was the fact that, for complete triumph of commodity production, conquest of the domestic market by the bourgeois was necessary, as was state unification of a territory and its population speaking the same language, with elimination of any hindrances to development of this language and its fixing in literature.'⁠11

"Other elements in formation of the nation also arise through prolonged historical development. They attain their full embodiment in connection with the consolidation of a nationality into a nation.

"Let us now briefly examine the question of nations and nationalities under the Soviet socialist system.

"In the period before the October revolution there exhibited only one type of nation — the bourgeois nation. In 1929 Comrade Stalin, generalizing the experience of socialist construction in his work 'The National Question and Leninism' gave a classic definition of the two historical types of nations: bourgeois nations, existing in the capitalist world, and the socialist nations arising on the basis of dictator­ship of the proletariat and the Soviet sometime.

"What are nations like under capitalism? Comrade Stalin points out 'The bourgeoisie and its nationalist parties were and are in this period the chief leading force of these nations.' Class peace within the nation for the sake of 'national unity'; expansion of territory of the nation by seizure of foreign nations' territories; a united front with imperialism — such is the ideological and social-political baggage of these nations. Such nations must be described as bourgeois nations. Such, for example, are the French, English, Italian and North American nations and others like them.⁠12

"The destiny of bourgeois nations is indissolubly linked with the destiny of capitalism; with the liquidation of the latter, the bourgeois  p300 nations will cease to exist. As a result of the triumph of the October revolution and consolidation of the Soviet system, as a result of the liquidation of capitalism not building of socialism, the old bourgeois nations in our country were liquidated. In the U. S. S. R. new socialist nations took shape 'which are much more united than any bourgeois nation, for they are free of the irreconcilable class contradictions which corrode the bourgeois nations and they represent much more of a national community than does any bourgeois nation.'⁠13

"The great friendship of the peoples of our socialist homeland is an expression of the new nature of socialist nations, conforming to historical laws. The social-economic basis of the development of the socialist nations, their social-political interests and aspirations lead with historical inevitability to their ever greater mutual rapprochement and the strengthening of their alliance within the unified multinational Soviet state. A vital feature of the socialist nations is their moral-political solidarity and unity.

"The nature and methods of consolidation of socialist nations and bourgeois nations are radically opposed. The bourgeois method of consolidation of nations is a method under which the nations fall away from one another, a method which incites national discord and enmity. The socialist method is one of steady rapprochement and friendly cooperation among nations with equal rights. The process of the consolidation of socialist nations has followed two paths: (1) Liquidation of the old, bourgeois nations and formation of new, socialist nations on their foundations; this process of forming socialist nations in the U. S. S. R. has been fundamentally completed; (2) Consolidation of the new, socialist nations as a result of the all‑around development of the tribes and nationalities awakened by the great October revolution and the Soviet regime; this process of consolidation of socialist nations has not yet been fully concluded. Alongside the nations which have taken shape in the U. S. S. R. are nationalities — of a new, socialist type — which are developing and consolidating into nations.

"The nationalities in the USSR are mainly small peoples and kindred tribes combined into nationalities, which had been doomed by the barbarous policy of tsarism to die out. Under the Soviet regime these tribes and nationalities, with the help of the great Russian people and other peoples of the U. S. S. R., began rapidly to develop their economy and culture, national in form and socialist in content. . . .

"The difference between nationalities and nations under the Soviet regime consists only in level of development of features which are common to both nations and nationalities. The socialist economy and socialist production relations constitute the common economic foundation of the development of nationalities and nations in the U. S. S. R. Nationalities differ from nations in level of cultural development. This is understandable, for the formerly oppressed and backward nationalities were able to develop freely only in Soviet society, i.e., quite recently, and therefore, of course, they have not yet had time to create so rich a  p301 culture, national in form and socialist in content, as have the nations which had long since taken shape. In the field of language the difference consists in the fact that together with the general language, the nationality preserves local dialects, which are still of great importance. In the language of the socialist nations which have taken shape the local dialects have already died out or in any case play an insignificant part.

"Under the Soviet system the nationalities develop and consolidate to form socialist nations. Both a single, separate nationality and several tribes and nationalities, kindred as regards derivation and language and merging together, can consolidate to form a socialist nation. The Yakuts, Khakassy and Tuvinians can serve as examples of the consolidation of single, separate nationalities to form corresponding socialist nations. But the consolidation of these peoples to form socialist nations has not yet been quite completed. Thus, certain groups of the Yakut people have not yet merged with it, although their development shows a trend toward such a merger. As to the consolidation of several nationalities to form a single socialist nation, an example of this is the nationalities of the so‑called Ando-Didoisk language group — the Andytsy, Botlikhtsy, Godoberintsy, Didoitsy, Khvarshiny, Khunsaly and certain other small nationalities of Western Dagestan, which are consolidating with the Avars to form a single socialist nation.

"In the report on the draft Constitution of the U. S. S. R. in 1936 Comrade Stalin pointed out that there are about 60 nations, national Portuguese and nationalities in the U. S. S. R. Since than there has been the reuniting of the Western Ukraine and Transcarpathian Ukraine with the Ukraine Republic, Western Belorussia with the Belorussian Republic, and baseball with the Moldavian Republic, i.e., completion of the consolidation of the Ukrainian, Belorussian and Moldavian peoples into single, socialist nations; the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Republics have entered the U. S. S. R., and the number of socialist nations in our country has grown.

"The Soviet socialist system guarantees all the socialist nations and nationalities real equality of rights. The fraternal friendship of peoples of equal rights in the firm foundation of the multinational Soviet state."

"Not less interesting is the composition of the Congress from the standpoint of nationalities. Statistics showed that the majority of the mensheviks' faction consists of Jews. . . . On the other hand, the overwhelming majority of the Bolsheviks consists of Russians. . . . For this reason, one of the Bolsheviks observed in jest [it seems to have been Comrade Aleksinsky] that the Mensheviks are a Jewish faction, the Bolsheviks a Russian faction, whence it wouldn't be a bad idea for us Bolsheviks to arrange a pogrom in the party."

"In all Russia . . . there is no trace of formal Jewish organization or institutions. . . . There is not a single Jewish news­paper or periodical throughout the length and breadth of the Soviet Union. Hebrew is forbidden. Religious instruction and everything that smacks of religious tradition is under the same ban. . . . Everything Jewish is either dlimd or else suffocated under a heavy blanket of official silence.

Herberg's conclusion: "What decades of Czarist persecution could not do, Communist totalitarianism seems on the verge of accomplishing — the stifling of every form of Jewish expression, the total extinction of Jewish existence."

"The Soviet Government has abandoned its much publicized efforts to create a 'Jewish homeland' in the Birobijan region of Eastern Siberia, latest information available indicates.

"Ao new policy came last November when a message arrived here at the headquarters of the Ambijan Committee, an organization formed in 1934 to gather funds and other aid for Birobijan's Jews, declaring that Birobijan no longer required or wanted any outside help. The cablegram was signed by Lew Yefremovich Benkovich as head of the Birobidjan Government.

"Last month the Israeli news­paper Haaretz, published in Tel Aviv, printed an article saying the Soviet Government had decided to end its efforts to establish a separate Jewish homeland in Birobijan. Haaretz's article, information in which has been confirmed by Israeli Government sources, was based on a report delivered to a recent congress of the Khabarovsk Territory Communist party by Pavel Vasilevich Simonov, first secretary of the Communist party of the Jewish Autonomous Province, as Birobidjan is officially known.

"The Haaretz report indicated that the Soviet Government intended to freeze the existing situation in Birobijan giving up efforts to resettle any large additional number of Jews there. The article cites reports that Jews from other parts of the Soviet Union have recently been settled in Krasnoyarsk Territory and other regions in Siberia rather than in Birobijan.

"At the Khabarovsk conference, Mr. Simonov reported that there were 140,000 persons in the Jewish Autonomous Province of whom 30 per cent were Jews. In 1939 the last Soviet census indicated this area had 108,000 inhabitants. Information then indicated that the Jewish population was under 30,000, according to Dr. Solomon Schwarz, who has made studies of Soviet Jewry.

"The increase in Birobijan's Jewish population from under 30,000 in 1939 to 42,000 in the recent postwar period is apparently attributable to the Soviet Government-sponsored migration in 1947 and 1948 of Jews from the Ukraine and other western areas to the Jewish Autonomous Province.

"Mr. Simonov's Khabarovsk report also revealed that a major purge had taken place in Birobidzjanº and that the last remaining Yiddish language news­paper in the Soviet Union, the Birobijaner Stern, had been closed down. Haaretz reported that the entire staff of the news­paper had been arrested. Among those purged were S. Kushvir, former first secretary of the Birobidzhan Commute party, and A. Bakhmotsky, former second secretary.

"The new Soviet policy on Birobijan is in accord with the general drive conducted in recent years against the formerly approved concept  p307 of the Jewish people as constituting a separate nation among the Soviet family of nations.

"In late 1949 the Soviet Government closed down the Yiddish Publishing House, the last Yiddish national news­paper, Einigkeit, and arrested a number of Jewish intellectuals. In early 1950 it conducted a major drive against 'homeless cosmopolitans,' most of whom were Jewish writers, some of whom were accused of spreading Zionism and other anti-Soviet 'bourgeois nationalism.'

"Reports front Soviet Union indicate that all or virtually all Yiddish schools have been closed down and that in general an effort is being made to speed up the assimilation of Soviet Jews. In earlier years the Government boasted that it was encouraging all forms of Yiddish culture and schooling."

"In the creation and development of the Socialist culture, especially Ukrainian Soviet culture, a distinguished role belongs to the elder brother of the Ukrainian nation — to the leading nation of all nations, which encloses them into the Soviet Union. The freedom loving character and creative genius of the Russian people, the high idealism of the social ideas of Russia have since continue old days of the past benevolently influenced the cultures of other nations. Perhaps the Ukrainian people have felt it the strongest.

"Ukrainian literature, arts, liberal arts, any branch of the culture of our nation wears itself the zeal of the life-giving influence of the great culture of the Russian people. Above all this influence was strengthened after the Great October Socialist Revolution. Educated by the Leninist-Stalinist ideas of the equality and unshakable friendship of nations, the  p309 Russian people gave tremendous help to all nationalities of our country, especially the Ukrainian in their economic and cultural rise."

"The Russian language has introduced me to poetry. Reading Russian books I got acquainted with the treasures of Russian and world literature. . . . Publishing a collection of my Russian poems I wish to acquaint my readers with that which helped me, a Ukrainian poet, which I never forgot, never am forgetting and never will forget, so long as my breast is breathing, my eyes are seeing and songs are humming in my heart. From time to time I even now am writing in Russian my poetry, because I cannot resist it. . . ."

"These Sosyura's words once again prove that the Lenin-Stalin nationality policy fosters the strengthening and development of the national languages and likewise creates a limitless respect of all nationalities for the Soviet Union and the great Russian language. These words of Sosyura are also an excellent answer to the bourgeois nationalists who struggle for full separateness of the language creation of the Ukrainian (and any other) language. . . . The Russian language offers to all humanity the light of the most inspired, most progressive, most lofty of human ideas. Broad and many-sided is its influence upon the non‑Russian nationality world. Mayakovsky expressed himself thus:

"Today the peoples of our great motherland and honest men throughout the world are observing Stalin Constitution Day, the day of the constitution of triumphant socialism, of the most democratic constitution in the world. The peoples of our country proudly call their constitution Stalinist, demonstrating their boundless love for their great leader and teacher, the creator to constitution of triumphant socialism.

"There is no more seem to be state in the entire world than the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Soviet system of organizing society is  p312 the most democratic and viable system. The Soviet multinational state is free of the irreconcilable class and national contradictions which rend the capitalist world.

"The great superiority of the socialist system and of Soviet democracy can be seen especially clearly against the background of capitalism's progressive decay and the corruption of bourgeois democracy. The indignation of the masses at the capitalist yoke is intensifying, hatred of the colonial and dependent peoples for their imperialist enslavers is growing. The national liberation movement of peoples is spreading. Attempting to avert the inevitable downfall of the capitalist system, the imperialist bourgeoisie of the U. S. A. and other countries are liquidating the last remnants of the democratic rights of the working people and adopting fascist methods of government.

"But, however much the black forces of imperialist reaction rage, however much the right-wing Socialist lackeys of Wall Street try, they are not in a position to stop the march of history to peace, democracy and socialism."

"Fifteen years ago, on Dec. 4, 1935, a conference was held in the Kremlin between leading collective farm men and women of Tadzhikistan and Turkmenistan and heads of the Party and government. Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin spoke at the conference, pointing out the great role of the friendship of peoples in the development and strengthening of our multinational socialist state. In the 15 years since that date the Soviet Union has become still more power­ful, and the Stalinist friendship of peoples has become still more firm and inviolable.

"During the great patriotic war this friendship passed a severe test in the battles for the honor and independence of our motherland, proving to be one of the deciding conditions in the victory over Nazi Germany and imperialist Japan. Since the war the heroic strength of this friendship has been manifested in peaceful, creative labor.

"National oppression and hostile among peoples was bred of the exploitative system. All capitalist multinational states, formed through deception and violence, are wracked from within by both class and national contradictions. The Bolshevist party and its leaders Lenin and Stalin always related the struggle for the emancipation of nationalities to the general struggle of the workers for liberation from the yoke of capital.

"At the Dec. 4, 1935 conference Comrade Stalin said: 'In olden times, when the Tsar, capitalists and land­owners had the power in our country, the policy of the government consisted of making one people — the Russian — dominant, and all others subordinate and oppressed. This was a monstrous, predatory policy. In October, 1917, when our great proletarian revolution unfolded, when we overthrew the Tsar, the land­owners and the capitalists, Lenin, our teacher, father and instructor, said that thenceforth there should be neither dominant nor subordinate peoples, that peoples must be free and equal. . . .' The Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia, worked out by Comrade Stalin and signed by Lenin  p313 and Stalin, proclaimed equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia; their right to free self-determination, even to secession not formation of independent states; the retraction of all national-religious privileges and limitations; and free development of the national minorities and ethnic groups inhabiting Russia.

"Together with the great Lenin, Comrade Stalin worked to unite all the Soviet republics into a single federated state. this work culminated in the adoption at the First All‑Union Congress of Soviets, Dec. 30, 1922, of the historic resolution on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The great Russian people played an outstanding role in the formation and consolidation of the Soviet multinational state.

"The formation of the U. S. S. R. was a triumph of Leninist-Stalinist national policy, a classic, functioning solution of the national question and a confirmation of the new relation­ships among the peoples of our motherland. Welded into a single fraternal family, the peoples of our country, led by the party of Lenin and Stalin, made the Soviet Union a mighty industrial and collective farming state. The formation of the U. S. S. R. opened up borad prospects to the development of the statehood, economy and culture overall Soviet republics.

"The Stalin Constitution proclaimed the equal rights of all citizens of the U. S. S. R., regardless of nationality and race. It upholds in deeds the common interests of all citizens of the country and the specific interests of the national republics and provinces — of all peoples, large and small. This is also true of the U. S. S. R. Supreme Soviet, highest organ of Soviet power, which is made up of two equal chambers, the Council [Soviet] of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. In the Council of Nationalities the Turkmenian Republic, for example, has the same number of representatives as the Russian Federation, which has scores of times as many inhabitants as Turkmenistan.

"It is generally known that in the U. S. A., for example, millions of Negroes and Indians, deprived of all human rights, are doomed to poverty and extinction. The imperialist colonizers preach a fascist race theory in order to 'establish' Anglo-Saxon superiority, drowning in blood the national liberation struggle of peoples, as witnessed by their aggression against the Chinese People's Republic and the freedom-loving people of Korea.

The Leninist-Stalinist principles of internationalism, friendship and equality of peoples lie at the basis of the peace-loving policy of the Soviet state, which defends the cause of world peace."

"The outcome of the struggle depends in the final analysis on the fact that Russia, India, China, etc., form the vast majority of the population. It is this majority of population which has been involved with  p314 unusual speed in recent years in the struggle for its liberation, so that in this sense there cannot be a shadow of doubt concerning the final outcome of the world struggle. In this sense the final victory of socialism has been fully and unconditionally secured" (p458)

"The Presidium of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences adopted a number of resolute measures for radical improvement of work in Soviet Oriental studies. . . . The institute has been assigned the task of concentrating principally on scientific elaboration of problems of the modern and recent history, language and literature, Etruria and politics of the countries of the present‑day East, and also national-colonial problems. An extended scientific elaboration of these problems should be based, naturally, on a serious study of the entire history of Eastern peoples, including medieval and ancient history, but a study of the topical problems of the history, economy and politics of the peoples of the present‑day East is the fundamental task of the Institute of Oriental Studies. Only by concentrating its energies on solution of these problems will the Institute of Oriental Studies fulfill those new tasks which have been placed before it.

"In our day, when events and enormous historic significance are occurring in the East, when great economic and cultural construction is being undertaken more and more extensively in the Chinese People's Republic, when the peoples of Korea and Viet Nam are conducting a persistent struggle against the imperialists for freedom and independence, when the national liberation movement is flaming up more and more in other Eastern countries, responsible new tasks arise for Soviet Oriental studies. Soviet Orientalists, armed with Marxist-Leninist methodology, should study those processes now taking their course in the Eastern countries. Along with this, special attention should be given to such problems as the crisis of the colonial system of imperialism, people's democracy in the countries of the East, the national liberation struggle of the Eastern peoples, and, finally, the contribution of the Eastern peoples to the technology of world culture.

"The Institute of Oriental Studies should become a scientific center which unites and directs all the work of Soviet Orientalists which up to now was disjointed. The organizational structure of the old Institute of Oriental Studies did not conform to these tasks. Therefore, by resolution of the Presidium of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences of Aug. 1, 1950, a new structure was formed for the Institute of Oriental Studies, which was divided into nine sections: (1) section on Julia, (2) section on mania Mongolia and Korea, (3) section on Japan, (4) section on the countries of Southeast Asia, (5) section on India and Afghanistan, (6) section on Iran, (7) section on Turkey and the Arab countries, (8) section on the Soviet East, (9) section (museum) of the Eastern manuscripts in Leningrad.

 p315  "The most important theory problems linked with the national liberation movement and the nationality question, which Comrade J. V. Stalin has set forth and elaborated with such force and with such profundity, should be brought to the fore in the institute's works. In these works our Orientalists should process from those important principles contained in the brilliant works of J. V. Stalin, 'Marxism and Problems of Linguistics,' which have seminal significance for the development not only of linguistics but also of other social sciences.

"Setting out to fulfill the responsible tasks placed before it, the Institute of Oriental Studies has drawn up a five-year plan for its scientific work. Under this plan, the scientific research of the Institute should take the following great deal directions.

"The personnel of the institute should prepare for the press a number of fundamental monographs on the contemporary East. These should include, first of all, works on the history, economy, politics and culture of the countries of the East which have been liberated forever from the yoke of imperialism and reaction, and, in particular, serious attention should be given to a study of the social-economic reforms in present‑day China. Themes linked with the aggravation of the crisis of imperialism's colonial system and the rise of the national liberation struggle in Eastern countries have been introduced in the plan. The aggressive policy of American-British imperialism in these countries should be exposed in these works. Simultaneously, special works on the modern and recent history and the literary history of India, Iran, Japan, Turkey, Burma, the Philippines, and a number of other Eastern countries, and integrated research projects on these countries, have been included in the five-year plan; also, works which expose the antinational role of reactionary ideologies, particularly Pan‑Islamism and Pan‑Turkism, which are instruments of imperialist reaction in the East.

"The institute should prepare a number of large works on the culture and national traditions of the peoples of the Soviet East. In this connection, large monographs devoted to the literary history of the peoples of Azerbaidzhan, Uzbekistan, Kara-Kalpakia and Tadzhikistan have been included in the five-year plan.

"Study of the problem of the historic role of advanced Russian culture in the development of the peoples of the Soviet East, particularly of Central Asia, is very important in terms of principle."

"Statute on the Medal 'For Excellent Subservience in Maintaining Public Order.' (Vedomosti Verkhovnovo Soveta, Nov. 16,º p1.)

"(1) Officers, sergeants, privates and other personnel of the militia agencies of the U. S. S. R. Ministry of State Security are decorated with the medal 'For Secret Service in Maintaining Public Order' for exploits and services rendered in combating common crime and maintaining public order in the country.

"(2) Decorations with the medal 'For Secret Service in Maintaining Public Order' are made by the U. S. S. R. Ministry of State Security in the name of the Presidium of the U. S. S. R. Supreme Soviet.

"(3) The Medal 'For Excellent Service in Maintaining Public Order' is awarded:

"for bravery and self-sacrifice displayed in liquidating robber-bandit groups;

"for bold and skillfully executed actions in preventing crimes which are in stage of preparation, or in uncovering common crimes which have been committed;

"for excellent supervision of operations in the detention of common criminals;

"for skillful organization of the work of the militia in combating common crime and in maintaining public order;

"for efficient service in the militia agencies of the U. S. S. R. Ministry of State Seicento.

"(4) The medal 'For Excellent Service in Maintaining Public Order' is worn on the left lapel and, if orders and other medals of the U. S. S. R. are worn, is placed after the medal 'For Excellent Protection of the U. S. S. R. State Frontier.'

"(5) The 'For Excellent Service in Maintaining Public Order' belonging to persons who fall in the course of discharging their professional duties or withhold die are pad on to the families of the holders of the medals, along with certificates relating to the medals, and are kept by them in memory."

"1. All heads of district administrations, city and county units of the MGB in the Western provinces of the Ukrainian SSR are not to hold criminally responsible all those members of the bands, including their chieftains, who voluntarily surrender:

"2. The granting of the right of free choice of habitation in all who voluntarily surrender. The local organs of the government shall render them all assistance in finding employment in their old places of residence if possible, or in other districts of their own choosing upon surrender;

"3. All heads of district administrations, city and county units of the MGB shall assure all who voluntarily surrender that the return from exile of their families to their old places of residence will be ordered;

"4. That in view of the fact that some local citizens know the bandits and maintain liaison with them, these citizens shall not be held criminally responsible if they sever their connection with the O. U. N. Benedict under­ground and reveal the whereabouts of the bandits by means of declarations, anonymous letters or otherwise;

"5. That in view of the fact that some persons who abandoned schools of general education and of the trades were deceived and terrorized by  p318 the bandits and went over to the under­ground and continue to hide despite the fact that they have committed no crimes, such persons therefore shall be permitted to return to their parents.

"6. The organs of the MGB and the militia shall intensify the struggle against those bandits who are unwilling to surrender and who, by threat and provocative action, prevent other illegals from breaking away from the under­ground and returning to honest work in collective farms and factories;

"7. Persons who continue to give shelter and material or any other kind of assistance to them, as well as those found in possession of arms, shall be considered as active supporters of the bandits and as such held criminally responsible.

"The Ukrainian Soviet people shall deal mercilessly with those remnants of the defeated bands who do not take advantage of this last opportunity. Their end is inevitable.

"This order is to be widely publicized among the population of the Western provinces of the Ukrainian SSR.

"Minister of State Security of the Ukrainian SSR, L‑Gen. M. Kovalchuk."⁠24

"Here it is necessary to call a spade a spade; among us there is going on a 'Nastoiashsheie stolpovorenie vavilonskoie.'⁠26 The language, spoken by the mass, is regarded as a folk dialect (prostonarodnym narechiem), a jargon, and 'argot'-slang (of course a French word!). This language is treated by our writers contemptuously. The genuine people's words and phrases, the genuine people's construction of sentences and way of thought are not permitted in articles and speeches except perhaps in excusing quotation marks! The idea does not even enter our mind that, according to real justice, such a mysterious 'argot for the over-whelming majority of the population is just our so‑called 'literary language,' created by a privileged minority (the aristocratic intelligentsia)."

"The Russian language, in which the great works of Lenin and Stalin are written, attracts not alone the peoples of the U. S. S. R., but all the toilers of the world. At one time the summit of European society made Latin the international language. Later, until very recently, French became the language of communion between peoples and governments. The Russian language is becoming the international language of socialist culture."

"The Russian language has become a world language. It has won the recognition of the world's common people. They want to learn more  p326 about the building of socialism and the sources of our country's might. The succession of languages runs through the ages. Latin was the language of the ancient world, French of the feudal epoch. English of capitalism, Russian is the world-language of socialism. French is the fancy language of courtiers, and English, the jargon of traders. They were the tongues of ruling classes and of snobbish intellectuals. Russian is the first language of internationalism. No one can call himself a scholar if he does not know Russian. Russians unquestionably occupy the first place in the social sciences. All future progress in these sciences has been determined by the genius of Lenin and Stalin."

"We observe tremendous progressive development in the languages of all the peoples of the U. S. S. R. However, these languages have completely preserved their characteristic features, their grammatical rules and their basic vocabulary. They are developed not according to the formula of N. Ya. Marr's 'language creation theory,' but according to their own ir laws.

"Each language has its individual peculiarities, characteristic of it alone, which makes it a form of a definite national culture. But the recognition of these peculiarities in no way requires the isolation of languages from one another, the rejection of their mutual influence. One of the most important questions of Soviet linguistics is the question of the tremendous beneficial influence of the great Russian language on the development of the national culture and languages of all the peoples of the U. S. S. R. This question was confused by the vulgarizers and simplifiers.

"In his reply to Comrade A. Kholopov J. V. Stalin determined the difference of principle in the relation­ship among nations and their languages in the period before the world-wide victory of socialism and after the world-wide victory of socialism. Comrade Stalin teaches that in exploiting societies, where national and colonial oppression exists, hybridization of languages takes place as a struggle for the domination of One of the languages, that here the conditions do not yet exist for peaceful and friendly cooperation and mutual enrichment of languages, but assimilation of some and the triumph of other languages. J. V. Stalin explains that 'under these conditions there can be only  p327 victors and vanquished.' This is fundamentally changed after the world-wide victory of socialism, after the elimination of national and colonial oppression, after the establishment of equal rights and mutual cooperation among nations and their languages. . . .

"In our country there has been established this completely new relation­ship among nations and their languages, a relation­ship of mutual cooperation of languages and culture, with the Russian people, their language and culture playing the leading role.

"The history of mutual relations among peoples knows no example of such a great, progressive influence on other peoples, their culture and language as the Russian people, their culture and language have had on the development of the culture and language overall the peoples of the Soviet Union, the people's democracies and the working people of the whole world as well.

"The leading, guiding role of the great Russian people in relation to all the peoples of our country is expressed also in Russian culture and the Russian language becoming power­ful factors in aiding the development of the national cultures and languages of all the socialist nations of the U. S. S. R. The contact with Russian culture, the peak of which is Marxism-Leninism, study of the Russian language and mastery of it are great sources for the spiritual development of all the peoples of the Soviet Union and for the rapid flowering of their cultures and languages. . . .

"V. I. Lenin predicted long ago that the Russian language would become a language beloved of all the peoples of Russia after the overthrow of Tsarism, which conducted a policy of forcible Russification of the outlying national areas.

"The Tsarist government, in Vicksburg study in the native language in schools of non‑Russian peoples, in forbidding the publication of news­papers and magazines in the native language and in prohibiting its use in public institutions, impeded development of the people's cultures. The forcible inculcation of Russian aroused the working people's antagonism toward Russian and caused indignation and protest, as did all the forcible measures of Tsarism.

"Tsarism's Russification policy was simply a means of kindling Anio among nationalities and impeding development of popular education of the 'alien nationalities.'

"During the 300 years of Tsarist rule in Yakutia, for example, literacy of the population reached only 1%. Much the same situation existed among the other peoples of Siberia and Central Asia. It is well known that the Constitutional Democrats and other liberals supported Tsarism's Russification policy.

"Exposing the policy of the liberals in regard to national education, Lenin wrote: 'The Russian language is great and mighty, the liberals tell us; do you not want everyone who lives in whatever corner of Russia to know this great and mighty language? Can you not see that the Russian language will enrich the literature of other peoples, making it possible for them to acquaint themselves with great cultural riches?' And so on.

"All this is true,' Messrs. liberals, we answer them. We know  p328 better than you that the language of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky is great and mighty. More than you, we want the establishment of the closest communion and fraternal unity among all the oppressed classes of all the nations inhabiting Russia, without exception. And, obviously, we want every inhabitant of Russia to have the opportunity to learn the great Russian language.

" 'There is only one thing we do not want: the element of compulsion. . . . We think the great and mighty Russian language does not have to make anyone study it under the rod. . . . Compulsion (the rod) while lead to only one thing: It will make harder the Russian language's acceptance by other national groups, and most of all it will intensify enmity, it will create a million new frictions and intensify irritation, mutual misunderstanding, etc.'⁠29

"It should be emphasized that the working masses of oppressed peoples of Tsarist Russia did not nourish distrust or hostility toward Russian culture in general, but toward the culture of the Russian landlords and capitalists which was foreign to them and which the local exploiters adopted. The working masses of the nationalities of Russia always loved and esteemed the progressive democratic and social culture of the great Russian people and strove to master Russian in order to acquaint themselves with the achievements of Russian culture. . . .

"This striving was expressed by the leading representatives of the culture of all the oppressed peoples, followers and propagandists of the great Russian culture. . . . The leading figures of the Russian and all other peoples struggled against Tsarism's Russification policy precisely because it impeded the study of the Russian language and mastery of the advanced Russian culture by the peoples of Russia.

"As is known, the Anglo-American and other imperialists carry on a policy of aggression and annihilation of oppressed peoples and an assimilation policy toward their languages and culture, and their lackeys — the right-wing socialists — support in every way and zealously carry out this inhuman policy of imperialism. But this policy is doomed to failure. J. V. Stalin shows in his works the inevitable doom of the imperialists' assimilationist policy.

"The experience of history shows that forcible assimilation, not merely in the course of one or two but of several generations, is powerless to force even the smallest nation to reject its native language and adopt a foreign tongue.

"Only liberation from national oppression and the establishment of equality and friendship of peoples create a genuine stimulus for a real grasp of the language of a more cultured people by a people less cultured in the past, and that only in close connection with development of their own native language and their own national culture.

"V. I. Lenin's statement that the absence of compulsion strengthens the non‑Russian population's attraction to and love of the great Russian language has been brilliantly proved, as have all scientific predictions by our leaders.

 p329  "À living example of this thesis of Lenin is the relation­ship established under socialism between the Russian people and the non‑Russian peoples of the U. S. S. R., between the Russian language and culture and the languages and cultures of the latter. This relation­ship is determined by the national policy of the party of Lenin and Stalin.

"At the basis of the Leninist-Stalinist national policy is recognition of the equal rights of nations and national cultures, of the principles of comprehensive aid by the great Russian people to all formerly oppressed and backward nations, of the principles of mutual aid among all peoples. The policy of the Bolshevist party is the basis of the harmonious flourishing of the culture and languages of all peoples of our country, of the gradual and steady obliteration of the differences in level of dvm of these peoples.

"The role of the Russian language in the development of the languages and cultures of all the peoples of the sur is constantly increasing. Russian has become a second native laja, in the full sense of this term, for each of the peoples of the Soviet Union.

"The Russian language is not only a means for our people to become familiar with the great Russian culture; it has also become a means of communication among the non‑Russian peoples of our multinational country. Representatives of all the nationalities come up with each other and exchange the achievements of their cultures only with the help of the Russian language, which has therefore become an inter-national language of the peoples of the U. S. S. R.

"But the significance of the Russian-language is not limited to this. The great Russian language is becoming a second native lag for the liberated peoples of the new democracies and the Chinese People's Republic which, fighting under the banner of Leninism, has freed itself from the yoke of 'its own' and international imperialism and now, studying Leninism and its practical expression — the great experience of Bolshevism — is advancing triumphantly along the path of establishing socialism.

"In our time the Russian language is becoming the most popular and widespread language in the world. The steady growth of the world importance of the Russian language reflects our country's role as vanguard is paving the way toward socialism, towed the liberation of all mankind from the yoke of exploitation and oppression.

"The U. S. S. R. is the fatherland of the working people, of the fighters for peace, democracy and socialism. All the people who are taking the path of socialism are rallying around the U. S. S. R. This is why a profound interest in and love for the Russian language and for Russian culture has sprung up among the working people throughout the whole world. At the same time, resistance by the oppressed peoples is increasing toward the assimilationist policy of Anglo-American imperialism, which suppresses and cripples their languages and cultures and forcibly propagates the English language in the colonies and semicolonies.

"Love for the Russian language and the attraction to Russian culture have never been so great as now, when the socialist soy structure has triumphed in our country. . . .

 p330  "Now millions of people of all nationalities in our country are studying with enthusiasm and love the great and mighty Russian language, the language of Russian science and art, the language in which it is possible to master the peak of Russian and world culture — Leninism — through the primary source, the language in which it is put to come up not only with the great Russian people but also with all the peoples of the Soviet Union and the people's democracies.

"Our Party does not set knowledge and army of the native language in opposition to knowledge and study of Russian, as has been and is being done by bourgeois nationalists. On the contrary, competence in one's native language, knowledge of its laws, contributes to better mastery of Russian. And for precisely this reason the flourishing of popular education among all the nationalities of the U. S. S. R. in the native language is accompanied by widespread mastery of the Russian language. Knowledge of the Russian language in turn ensures the development of the native languages, which are influenced more and more by terms of science and technology, literature and art which are borrowed from the Russian. Thus, the native language cannot be developed further if Russian is not mastered at the same time.

"The great Russian language nourishes and enriches the languages of all our peoples, imparting to them its power and strength, its beauty and flexibility, its richness and variety.

"Ever increasing enrichment of their vocabulary from the Russian language has become the law of development of the languages of all the peoples of the U. S. S. R. The ideas most sacred to the Soviet people and the words expressing them — 'the Party,' 'socialism,' 'communism,' 'Communist,' 'Bolshevik,' 'Soviet Union' — the most widespread scientific and technical terms have been adopted by all the languages in ready-made form from the Russian and have become organic part of the vocabulary of the native language of each of the socialist nations.

"Since language is one of the most important elements in the national form of culture, this drawing together of languages of the socialist nations is one of the clearest indications of the drawing together of the national cultures of the peoples of the U. S. S. R.

"The popular MSS. movement for mastery of the Russian language has led to a need for revising the archaic alphabets which impeded the study of Russian. The overwhelming majority of Soviet peoples have changed their alphabet from the Latin to the Russian system.

"Twenty Turkic peoples, the Finno-Ugric peoples, the Tadzhik, Ossetian and Caucasian mountain peoples, the Buryats and foreign Mongolians night switched to a Russian alphabet. Thus transition has facilitated the study of the Russian language. Learning a single alphabet now provides at one stroke a basis for literacy in two languages — the native one and Russian; the expediency of this is obvious.

"The change to the Russian alphabet cannot be considered a replacement of the national written language of the peoples by the Russian written language. This measure aids the further perfecting of the national written language. With the transition of the national written language to the Russian alphabet there is manifested the maximum concern  p331 that the new alphabet should in each concrete instance actually reflect all the necessary and most vital phonetic peculiarities of each national language and at the same time guarantee the assimilation by the language of terminology of the mored Ved Russian language.

"Thus, for example, there have been preserved in the new Yakut alphabet seven sounds absent in the Russian, without which it would be impossible to speak Yakutian correctly. These sounds are reproduced in slightly altered Russian letters. The characteristics of the national phonemes are taken into account in other alphabets also. The working people of all the national republics and provinces have approved the frame of their written language. . . .

"Where formerly the ideologists of the nationalist bourgeoisie tried in every way to bar the national languages from the influence of the great Russian language, to prevent the working masses from studying the Russian language, where they strove to Stalingrad the peoples of our country, to prevent their fraternizing, now the great Russian language has become a second native language and a mighty means of communication for all Soviet citizens regardless of their nationality, a power­ful well-spring for the further development and perfecting of the languages of all Soviet nations, a language binding all peoples of the U. S. S. R. with the great Russian people as well as with each other.

"The practical experience of the peoples of the U. S. S. R. has fully confirmed the truth of our Party's statement on the equality and equal value of languages. All languages are equal in the sense that they have equal opportunity to develop under the economic and political conditions in which their creators and speakers — the people themselves — have been placed. They have proved equal in the sense that any language is a power­ful means through which the people speaking it can reach the heights of socialist culture; tin sense that it is power­ful instrument of struggle for communism. . . .

"J. V. Stalin teaches that mankind will arrive at a single language and a single culture under communism through the maximum development, the flourishing of the national languages and cultures under socialism. The experience of building the culture of the peoples of the U. S. S. R., national in form and socialist in content, fully confirms this inspired statement by our leader and teacher. This experience entirely refutes bourgeois nationalism, which strives to isolate the languages of the peoples from each other, to arrest the development of the language of every nation, to prevent the normal development of these languages. This experience also fully refutes bourgeois cosmopolitanism, which strives to do away with the national languages and cultures of the peoples, to force upon them the language and culture of the Anglo-American imperialists.

"In his work 'The National Question and Leninism' Comrade Stalin defined with inspired discernment the future of nations and national languages. He demonstrated that national differences and languages will begin to die out only in the third stage of the world dictator­ship of the proletariat, when 'socialism enters into the daily lives of the peoples, when the nations become convinced through practical experience of the  p332 advantages of a common language over national languages.'⁠30

"Inspired by Comrade Stalin's statements, Soviet linguists, proceeding from the basis of generalizing upon the tremendous experience of building the cultures, national in form and socialist in content, of our peoples, will launch profound and comprehensive study of all problems of linguistics, for the further success­ful development of the languages of the socialist nations in the U. S. S. R."

"Protesting against the oppression of the Church and defending the right of confession of any group, at the same time we are against the Church altogether, fighting for the voy of a new conception of the world. It is the same with the self-determination of the nations. Recognizing this right and fighting for it, we are aut fighting against all rights of the nations which are not in harmony with the interest of the proletariat."

"Rumanians urged by press to learn Russian language

"If you don't speak Russian, you're not really living. That is what Russians are being told. The Communist news­papers of that iron curtain country are bombarding their readers with articles explaining the absolute necessity of learning Russian. The news­paper Scanteia Tineretului says: 'One cannot conceive of an honest, peace loving man, or a real lover of culture and science in the service of mankind, who does not strive to master the Russian language. Let us organize the greatest possible number of Russian css, in factories and workshops, institutions and collective farms. Let us attend these courses regularly and work our hardest to learn Russian as quickly as possible. Let us bring our colleagues to these courses and make every youth eager and determined to overcome all difficulties in order to master Russian." Viata Sindicala opened a similar plea with attraction from V. M. Molotov Prisoner Stalin's right hand man: 'There is no doubt that if Latin was the language of feudal society, French the language of capitalist society and English the language of imperialism, Russian is the language of our cene, in which all roads lead to communism.' . . . According to the same paper 'the Russian language has crossed the frontiers of the Soviet Union, borne on the banners of the liberating Red army, and today it reaches the farthest corners of the earth, borne on the wings of the dove of peace. In our country, too, all those who work with arm of mind must take the trouble to learn Russian, for in it they will find power and confidence in the final victory of the forces of peace and freedom captive the forces of war and oppression.' "

" 'He hinted that he had a "rare" present for me. After we had had dinner at his house one night, he drove us all to the Lincoln Memorial.  p335 Herta (Mrs. Field) and I walked slowly up the steps and wondered what would happen next. We looked at the Memorial, at the view, and then began to walk down the stamps toward the car. As we swung around we heard Noel's voice singing. Standing tall and straight on the top of the Memorial steps, he was singing the Internationale, the Communist hymn, at the top of his voice — in Rome! That was my "present." '

"This was a symbol. This keen, well-educated, ambitious young American, who was drawing his salary from our State Department, was proclaiming, before the shrine of Abraham Lincoln, his loyalty to the Kremlin."

"Communism has its bible, 'Capital.' It has its Moses, Karl Marx. It has its Messiah, Lenin, who lies in state in the mock holy sepulchre of Moscow's Red Square. It has its infallible Pope, Stalin, surrounded by a small hierarchy of ruling powers. Its elect are the party members. Its god is the state, that must be served with an answering devotion, a blind zeal, and a sacrifice of life and property and personal liberty never demanded by any god since the ancient days of Moloch of Carthage. It has its martyrs enshrined in martyrs' tombs. Its dogmas must be believed with such implicit faith that they cannot be discussed aversely or opposed in the slightest degree. . . . "

"The Declaration proclaimed that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms as set forth by the Declaration can be fully realized.

"The eleven nations protested that such rights and freedoms are ignored and violated in their countries by the government of the Soviet Union and arbitrary Communist administrations. Specifically they charged:

"a) arbitrary arrest and detention;

"b) exile and deportation;

"c) cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;

"d) slave labor;

"e) deprivation or limitation of freedom of movement;

"f) deprivation of the freedom of thought and opinion;

"g) arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home and correspondence;

"h) deprivation of the freedom of assembly or imposition of the duty to belong to organizations (particularly for youth and children);

"i) arbitrary limitation of the domain of faith and conscience;

"j) arbitrary deprivation of nationality, and

"k) deprivation of the right of freely electing their government.

 p337  "The signatories, namely, Ukraine, Byelorussia, Bulgaria, the Czechs, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Yugoslavia, offered to furnish either collectively or separately the necessary documentation in support of the charges."

"28 — Prisoner Marshal Tito replied yesterday to the WSW speech of Vyacheslav M. Molotov, Soviet Deputy Prisoner, by the denouncing the Soviet leaders as a mass of murderers who had built their despotic power on the corpses of many nations uprooted from their homelands and exterminated in the Siberian wastes.

"Marshal Tito's savage attack can be summarized in a single phrase — Soviet leaders are enemies of mankind, let all free men beware.

"In reply to Mr. Molotov, Marshal Tito said:

"The Soviet leaders are criminals. In their accusations that we are criminals I do not see anything else but a desire to conceal their own crimes. They are killing people in Albania, Rumania, Czecho­slovakia, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary, not to speak of Russia.

"What moral right does Molotov have to throw accusations into our faces and say that we are criminals. With what right does he speak, he who is one of the principal leaders of a country where the unheard‑of crime of genocide is being practiced in which entire nations are being destroyed in face of the whole world. Where is the German Volga Republic, where one of the most capable people used to live. It is in Siberian taiga. Where is the Tartar Republic of Crimea? It is in Siberia. It has disappeared in the taigas and swamps.'

" 'Where are the Chechens on the Caucasus,' Marshal Tito continued. 'They have ceased to exist. They were expelled from the mountains where they fought for centuries for their freedom. They have disappeared into Siberia. They were swallowed by the enormous Siberian taiga.

" 'Where are thousands and tens of thousands of citizens from Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia? They are no longer, they are being transported daily to Siberia to work there under the harshest conditions and to disappear from the face of the earth.

" 'This fate awaits every country and every peo which permits the Soviet to sit on their necks.'

"Finally Tito urged the Poles to revolt."

" 'It is advisable to establish departments of Russian language wherever possible.'