Chase: The Story of Lithuania • Chapter 26

Deprived of her political existence for one hundred and nineteen years, destined by her conqueror for denationalization and assimilation, treated as part and parcel of the Russian Empire, Lithuania played no role in the creation or promotion of World War I. The outbreak of these hostilities, during which her resources and her population were severely devastated, did provide the Lithuanian people with an opportunity to recover their national independence.

1. Lithuania and World War I

In mid-August, 1914, the Russian offensive against East Prussia was launched by General Zilinsky; one army was directed by Rennenkampf, the other by Samsonov. It lasted but twenty-eight days and culminated with the defeats of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. In February, 1915, Russian troops, seeking to inaugurate another invasion of East Prussia, were repelled once again in the Masurian Lake district, and again the battle with the retreating Russians was carried by the Germans into the Lithuanian districts of Suvalkai, resulting in the evacuation of Augustavas (Augustovo). In March, an unsuccessful Russian attempt was made to seize Klaipeda (Memel). In May, German forces entered into Samogitia and Courland, severe battles taking place on the Dubysa and Venta Rivers and near Siauliai. That same spring, the German armies initiated a strong offensive against the Russian line of p258 defense on the eastern front, formed mainly by the fortresses of Ust-Dvinsk (west of Riga) in Latvia, Kaunas and Gardinas in Lithuania, Osowiec, Lomza, Plock and Modlin in Poland. On August 4th, Warsaw fell. Two weeks later, on the 18th, Kaunas capitulated. Eight days afterwards, Brest-Litovsk, ancient town of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, surrendered. Vilnius, the Lithuanian capital, was taken on September 8th. The German advance stopped along the line stretching from Riga and Dvinsk to Tarnopol,⁠a near the Romanian frontier. These positions were maintained with only minor changes until the early months of 1918, when the German forces penetrated into Estonia. As a result, Lithuanian territories remained under German military occupation.

As other countries, Lithuania also endured the inevitable devastation and havoc wrought by the war. From the very beginning Lithuanian territories were destined to serve as bases for military operations. Kaunas and Gardinas had been converted by Russian authorities into first class centers of defense, with a well-developed network of communications. Perhaps due to the haste with which Russian forces invaded East Prussia in 1914, large amounts of supplies were requisitioned from the Lithuanian people. During the first Russian defeats and the consequent withdrawal of the Russian forces, artillery fire destroyed towns and villages in the Suvalkai area. Thousands of inhabitants were removed to the interior. The general Russian retreat in face of the steady German advance during the summer and autumn of 1915, witnessed the execution of a scorched earth policy, whereby all objects of any possible value to the enemy were either confiscated or carried away. A vast exodus of Lithuanians accompanied the retreat. Numerous forests, estates, mills, buildings, homes and other establishments were completely destroyed. Little remained of such towns in western Lithuania as Kretinga, Taurage, Siauliai, and of those situated east and west of the line drawn by the Nemunas on which the three strongholds of Kaunas, Alytus and Gardinas were located. The desperate inhabitants of the Suvalkai area had even been compelled to seek shelter in abandoned trenches. Meanwhile, some 25,000 Lithuanian soldiers in the Russian service had been taken prisoner by the Germans. Other Lithuanian men, also previously p259 conscripted, were stationed on various Russian fronts.

German occupation did not by any means improve matters. Under the direction of the Military Administration (the famous Ober-ost) of Prince Isenburg, forests and farms were looted. All conceivable supplies were requisitioned. So severe was the drain on Lithuanian resources that in 1916, thousands died of starvation, particularly in the city and vicinity of Vilnius. Inhabitants were drafted for work and military service. German currency, quite often appearing in various counterfeit forms, was introduced. And a campaign of Germanization was inaugurated, revealing the German intentions of annexing the country. Schools still in existence were compelled to include the German language as an important part of the curriculum. Lithuanian names of families and places were altered: for example, Kaunas to Kaunen, Taurage to Tauroggen, Siauliai to Schaulen, Sveksna to Schwekschne. Lithuanian publications were suppressed, although the German staff itself sponsored a bulletin in the Lithuanian language, called Dabartis (The Present). Yet, in 1917, permission was obtained for the issuance of the Lietuvos Aidas (The Echo of Lithuania), although under strict German censorship.

2. Lithuanians Outside of Occupied Lithuania

In November, 1914, with the approval of the Russian authorities, the Lithuanians created at Vilnius the Central Committee of Relief for War Sufferers. The activities of the members of this Committee played a tremendously important role in the recovery of Lithuanian independence. The chairman was Martin Ycas, a member of the Russian Duma; the post of vice-chairman was filled by Anthony Smetona, who later became the first President of the restored Republic of Lithuania. Upon the occupation of Lithuania by the Germans, this Committee divided itself into two branches, part (Ycas, Silingas, Leonas, Balcikonis, Olsauskas) retiring to Russia and the rest remaining at Vilnius under the leadership of Smetona.

The first branch of this Committee of Lithuanians established itself at Petrograd (Leningrad) and performed a magnificent service for the many Lithuanian exiles in all parts of Russia. It p260 secured relief and founded places of asylum for the Lithuanian refugees. It organized schools for Lithuanians, especially at Voronezh, and rendered support to needy university students. It banded together the Lithuanian intelligentsia, scattered as it was throughout the Russian Empire because of previous oppression. It maintained representatives in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland and the United States. It concerned itself with the Lithuanian prisoners of war, captured by the Germans.

In addition to the immense task of war relief carried on by them in Russian territory, these Lithuanians also sought to give expression to their political notions concerning the future status of Lithuania. As a matter of fact, during 1914, Martin Ycas had already been agitating for a wide autonomy for his country. Again, a resolution to this effect had been publicly issued at Vilnius during August of that same year. Likewise, a secret organization, known as the Lithuanian Centre at Vilnius, was founded with the purpose of counteracting the activities of the Poles; the latter, having received from Grand Duke Constantine the promise of autonomy after the war, attempted to identify the cause of Lithuanians and Poles and were bent upon the revivification, under purely Polish auspices, of the former Polish-Lithuanian historical union, no longer acceptable to the Lithuanians. And in August, 1915, Januskevicius had outlined a proposal which suggested that Lithuania be granted complete independence. Finally, in March, 1917, after the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolution,⁠b the Lithuanians in Russia created a Lithuanian National Council; two months later, they summoned delegates and representatives of the nation to Petrograd for a National Diet or Seimas to consider plans and means of liberating Lithuania from Russian rule. Similar assemblies were convoked at Stockholm and at Voronezh that same year. At Voronezh, the formation of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian Nation in Russia took place under the leadership of Casimir Grinius, John Jablonskis, and Francis Masiotas. This Council (Taryba) proclaimed a very definite program, based on the principle of self-determination and the rights which naturally accrue to a free state, for the restoration of an independent Republic of Lithuania within its ethnographic boundaries.

p261 Meanwhile, various upheavals were occurring in the Russian interior. The Tsar had abdicated in March, 1917. In November, the provisional government of Kerensky was overthrown and the Bolshevik party assumed control, promising an immediate opening of peace negotiations with Germany. A rather complete disintegration of the old Russian armies followed. And on March 3, 1918, a separate peace with Germany was concluded by the Bolshevik government at Brest-Litovsk.

Under such circumstances, neither the representatives of the Lithuanian Central Committee of Relief for War Sufferers, nor the Lithuanian National Council in Russia found it possible to function in any efficient manner. Many sought to return to Lithuania immediately. Attempts were made at an organization of a Lithuanian army from the officers and soldiers in the Russian forces. Some success was attained at Vitebsk, Smolensk, Rovno, in the Ukraine, and in Siberia, where Lithuanian battalions appeared. However, they survived but an extremely short time, being quickly suppressed and disbanded by the Bolsheviks. And in Siberia, as elsewhere, some Lithuanian officers and soldiers were even executed.

Numerous were the activities of the Lithuanian exiles, refugees and emigrants in other parts of the world, promoting the movement for the recovery of Lithuanian independence. A National Council was created by the Lithuanians in the United States. It required that the principle of self-determination be applied to all Lithuanian areas occupied by the Russians and Prussians. It rejected the renewal of political union with the Poles. It rendered its support to the Lithuanian Bureau of Information at Paris, directed by Joseph Gabrys (later transferred to Switzerland). In rapid succession, Lithuanian conventions were held at Lausanne, Berne, Chicago, New York to the end of the war. Close cooperation was effected with the Relief Committee and the National Council (Taryba) residing in German-occupied Lithuania. All these activities, based on the rights of peoples to self-determination, served as a true and unanimous expression of the will of the entire Lithuanian nation, which looked forward to the restoration of a free Lithuanian state and absolutely refused to consider a renewal of a political alliance with Poland.

p262 3. Declaration of Independence

The members of the second branch of the War Relief Committee remaining at Vilnius were the individuals to whose lot fell the immediate task of regaining the Lithuanian independence. In the latter half of the year 1915, various vacancies within the Committee were filled and Anthony Smetona assumed the Chairmanship. The Committee then attempted to restrain the severity of the German demands imposed upon the people as much as existing conditions permitted. Besides its intensive work of organized relief, it also pursued a political program. It initiated a campaign against the Germanizing policy and the repressive measures of the German administrative authorities. It sought to establish and support Lithuanian schools, provide for the training of Lithuanian teachers and the publication of Lithuanian educational manuals. It dispatched its secret agents to various centers of the land, and issued a series of secret appeals urging the Lithuanian people to prepare for the reconstruction of the Lithuanian state.

The Committee made its first public and formal proclamation concerning its political aspirations early in 1916. At that time, it participated in the plea made to President Woodrow Wilson of the United States by the suppressed nationalities of Russia. And at a subsequent conference at Lausanne, Switzerland, where the Committee was represented by three of its members, it pronounced itself in favor of Lithuania's complete independence. The German authorities sought to arrest this movement. They suggested the creation of a Lithuanian Council in the service of the German administration. But the Lithuanians refused to cooperate with this proposal.

In November, 1916, Austria and Germany announced the restoration of Polish independence. The Polish National Committee then attempted to gain the inclusion of Lithuanian territories in this Polish state, which was to be fathered by the Austrians and the Germans and maintained under their jurisdiction. The Lithuanians countered the pretensions and claims of the Poles, by presenting a memorandum to the German officials and demanded the p263 reestablishment of an independent Lithuania within its ethnographic borders.

On August 1, 1917, quite contrary to the wishes of the Germans, a conference of leading Lithuanian men was summoned at Vilnius. The work of these twenty-one men was severely hampered, when the German administration informed them that no Lithuanian political activity would be tolerated, except that it be carried on in view of intimate alliance with Germany. However, the Executive Branch of this Committee of Organization, consisting of Smetona, Saulys, Stankevicius, Birziska and Klimas soon gained official permission to convoke a Lithuanian National Conference.

Since it was impossible to hold a general vote, invitations were sent to some 264 prominent Lithuanians in every district of the country. Attempts were even made to communicate with other representative Lithuanian men in Russia and elsewhere. And on September 17, 1917, this Lithuanian National Assembly, consisting of 214 individuals of various political, social and professional views, met at Vilnius and remained in session until September 23rd. John Basanavicius acted at Chairman. In thoroughly unmistakable language the Assembly issued a demand for the restoration of a sovereign and independent state of Lithuania, established on a democratic basis within its ethnographic borders. For the achievement of this end, it also adopted a very definite program; it decreed that a properly elected Constituent Assembly, sitting at Vilnius, was to draw up the Lithuanian Constitution and regulate the relations of the restored Lithuanian state with other countries. In an effort to appease the German authorities of occupation, the Assembly stated that without prejudice to its independence the Lithuanian state would arrange for the maintenance of suitable relations with Germany. Finally, this Lithuanian National Assembly proceeded to create a Lithuanian National Council (Taryba), consisting of twenty members, to whose presidency Anthony Smetona was elected.

This Taryba or National Council was quickly recognized by Lithuanians in Russia, Switzerland, the United States and Sweden, as the official agent of the Lithuanian people. The German administration, however, sought to reduce it to the status of a mere p264 Advisory Organ, and even sought to prevent the publication of the decisions of the Vilnius National Assembly. The demands of the Taryba for a change in the harsh tactics employed by the German occupants were simply ignored. As a matter of fact, severe pressure from every German source was used in order to compel the Taryba to pronounce itself in favor of a federation with Germany on economic and military grounds. Meanwhile, an armistice had been arranged between Russia and the Central Powers on December 5th and preparations were made for peace negotiations (which began at Brest-Litovsk on December 22nd and were concluded on March 3, 1918, after German forces had brought the Bolshevik government to terms by invading Estonia as far as Lake Peipus). And on December 11, 1917, the hard-pressed Taryba, seeking to gain some recognition of Lithuanian independence, issued the following proclamation:

The Taryba of Lithuania, recognized as the sole authorized representative of the Lithuanian nation both by Lithuanians at home and abroad, supporting its claims on the recognized principle of self-determination for nations and on the decisions of the Lithuanian National Assembly made at Vilnius on September 17‑23, 1917, hobby announces the restoration of an independent Lithuania with its capital at Vilnius, and the abandonment of all political bonds which at any time had linked it with other states.

II.

The Taryba of Lithuania furthermore requests the protection and the assistance of Germany for the due ordering of this state and the defense of its interests during the peace negotiations. And in consideration of vital Lithuanian interests, which require the formation of intimate and firm relations with the German state without any further delay, the Taryba of Lithuania declares itself in favor of a lasting and sound alliance with Germany; which alliance should be effected particularly through military and economic pacts and through a common program adopted in the customs and monetary spheres.

This declaration of independence of December 11th simply attempted to circumvent the annexationist tendencies of the German p265 occupants and, at the same time, to void the claims of Russia to Lithuanian territory. But at Brest-Litovsk the Bolshevik government sought to gain a "peace without annexations." It proposed that the future status of the German-occupied areas of Livonia, Courland, Lithuania and Poland battalion decided through a plebiscite; this was contrary to the wishes of the Germans. And as it became progressively more evident that the German aim in Lithuania was one of annexation, the conciliatory policy of the Lithuanian Taryba also changed. Consequently, on January 8, 1918, it reiterated the decree of the Vilnius Assembly as to the immediate necessity of convoking a Lithuanian Constituent Assembly, about which it had remained silent in December. And finally, on February 16, 1918, the Taryba issued an uncompromised and true declaration of Lithuanian independence:

"The Taryba of Lithuania has unanimously decreed at its session of February 16, 1918, to present the following declaration to the governments of Russia, Germany and other states:

"The Taryba of Lithuania, as the sole representative of the Lithuanian nation, supporting its claims on the recognized principle of self-determination of nations and on the decisions of the Lithuanian National Assembly made at Vilnius on September 17‑23, 1917, hereby proclaims the reestablishment of the independent state of Lithuania on a democratic basis with its capital at Vilnius, and announces the separation of that state from all political ties, which previously have linked it with other nations.

"Likewise, the Taryba of Lithuania declares that in order to fix definitely the foundations of the state of Lithuania and its relations with other states, a Constituent Assembly, elected by the inhabitants in accordance with democratic principles, will be convoked as soon as possible.

"Informing the government of ........................ on this matter, the Taryba of Lithuania requests it to recognize the independent state of Lithuania."

Naturally, this Declaration of Independence was thoroughly unacceptable to the German authorities. Attempts were made to suppress its publication. Nevertheless, a little more than a month p266 later, through the continued efforts of a delegation of the Taryba and its representations to the German Chancellor, Hertling, de jure recognition of independent Lithuania was obtained from the Kaiser, Wilhelm II, on March 23, 1918. This recognition, however, was granted only in view of the Taryba's declaration of December 11th.

But even after this event, the National Council or Taryba was allowed no freedom of action. It was not permitted to assume the administration of the country nor make arrangements for the return of the Lithuanian exiles from Russia. In fact, various speculations emanated from German sources about the advisability of creating a union between Lithuania and Prussia, or even Saxony.

In another effort to overcome the policy of the Germans, the Taryba on June 4, 1918, formulated a short constitution for the Lithuanian state and issued an invitation to Duke William Urach of Württemberg, a German prince, to become the king of Lithuania with the title of Mindaugas II. And although William signified his acceptance of the offer in August, the German government refused to recognize this procedure and continued to ignore the authority claimed by the Taryba.

Finally, as the Allied armies advanced steadily in the West, Maximilian of Baden, the German Chancellor, issued a declaration permitting the organization of a Lithuanian administration for the country. And on November 2nd, the Taryba adopted a provisional constitution. It withdrew its previous invitation to William Urach and repeated its proclamation, made in the Declaration of Independence, that the form of government was to be selected by the Constituent Assembly. On November 5th, it delegated Augustine Voldemaras to form the first Cabinet of the independent state of Lithuania. This Cabinet began to function six days later, on the very day that the Armistice brought the World War to a close. And according to the terms of the Provisional Constitution executive functions were entrusted to a Directory of three (A. Smetona, J. Staugaitis, S. Silingas), who were to act through the Cabinet of Ministers, who in turn were responsible to the Taryba or Council of State; the latter was to serve as the legislative organ. The p267 Constitution also included a bill of rights, which admitted the absolute equality of all citizens and abolished the existence of class distinctions.

4. The Constitutional Organization of Lithuania

Due to the wars of independence,⁠1 which the state of Lithuania was compelled to wage almost immediately after its reestablishment, it was impossible to hold universal elections for the Constituent Assembly of the nation. Consequently, at Kaunas, where the Provisional Government, fleeing from the Bolshevik danger at Vilnius, had transferred its seat, a Provisional National Conference of some 200 delegates from various communities throughout Lithuania assembled on January 17, 1919. It sanctioned the activities of the existing government, decreed upon the drafting of a republican form of constitution, considered plans for the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, and elected eight new members to the Taryba. This Taryba or Council of State then numbered 37 individuals, nine having been added on the occasion of the formation of the first Cabinet under Voldemaras. They represented all elements of the Lithuanian state, including the Jewish and White Ruthenian minorities. Meanwhile, Voldemaras acted as the ambassador of Lithuanian interests at the Peace Conference, and Smetona had obtained a loan of one hundred million German marks and had attempted to establish relations with the Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

On April 4, 1919, the Taryba altered the provisional constitution to the extent that the Directory of three was abolished in favor of the presidency of one. Anthony Smetona, who had acted as the leader of the Taryba since its formation in September, 1917, was elected by the members to this post and thereby became the country's first President. Various measures were also adopted for the gathering of the Constituent Assembly and the regulating of national finance. After the enactment of the electoral laws on November 20, 1919, which provided for universal, direct, equal and secret suffrage for all citizens, elections of deputies to the p268 Constituent Assembly took place the following year, April 14‑16, on the basis of proportional representation. The eastern areas of the Lithuanian state, being under Polish occupation at the time,⁠2 could not participate. One hundred and twelve⁠3 duly elected delegates, forming the Constituent Assembly, and in reality the first regular Lithuanian Parliament or Seimas, representative of the will of the people, met at Kaunas on May 15th, 1920.

It promptly ratified the reestablishment of the independent Lithuanian state on the lines of democratic principles. It adopted another provisional constitution to remain in force until the final drafting of a permanent constitution could be completed. This was promulgated by Anthony Smetona on June 10th. And at that point, the role of the Provisional Government was ended. All power was then vested in the Constituent Assembly, whose task was to create a permanent government. President Smetona, the Taryba, and the cabinet resigned. A new Cabinet, headed by Casimir Grinius as Prime Minister, was formed. And Alexander Stulginskis, who had been chosen the presiding officer of the Constituent Assembly was delegated the Acting President of the Republic.

On August 1, 1922, a permanent constitution was adopted, and promulgated six days later. It provided a bill of rights for the citizens of the Republic of Lithuania, including freedom of speech, assembly, religion, communication, local government and guaranteed respect and autonomy for the rights of national minorities. It declared legislative power vested in the Seimas or Parliament, and executive power in the President and Cabinet of Ministers; the Seimas was to be elected by the universal, secret ballot of Lithuanian citizens; the President was to be chosen by members of the Seimas, while the Prime Minister received his appointment from the President. The executive authorities were responsible to the Seimas, which was also endowed with the power to impeach the President. The President, in turn, was granted the right to dismiss p269 the Parliament and proclaim new elections, after which he himself must be reelected by the new Seimas.

And in accordance with the terms of the Constitution, a new regular Parliament was chosen on October 10‑11. It convened on November 13th, and on December 21, 1922, elected Alexander Stulginskis (the Acting President) as the second President of the Lithuanian state.

The Author's Notes:

3 59 Christian Democrats, 29 Populists (Liberals), 14 Social Democrats, 6 Jews, 3 Poles, 1 German.

Thayer's Notes:

b A mistake. As we will read a few lines later, the Bolshevik revolution would not be till early November (October, by the Russian calendar then in effect); the March (February) revolution installed a moderate non-Communist government.

1.	Lithuania and World War I
2.	Lithuanians Outside of Occupied Lithuania
3.	Declaration of Independence
4.	The Constitutional Organization of Lithuania