The Sixth Booke of Plinies Naturall History

Philemon Holland, translator (1601): C. Plinius Secundus The Historie of the World. Book VI. (Pages 114-151)

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THE SIXTH BOOKE OF

THE HISTORIE OF NATVRE,

WRITTEN BY C. PLINIVS

SECVNDVS.

Chap. I.

Pontus Euxinus.

HE Sea called Pontus Euxinus, and named by the Greeks in old time Axenos,¹ for the hard usage that passengers found at the hands of those savage nations upon the coasts therof, is spred also between Europe & Asia, upon a very spite and speciall envie of Nature, as it should seeme, unto the Earth, and a wilfull desire to maintaine still the Sea in his greatnesse, and to fulfill his greedie and endles appetite. For contented she was not to have environed the whole earth with the maine Ocean, yea and taken from it a great part thereof, with exceeding rage overflowing the same, and laying all emptie and naked: it sufficed not, I say, to have broken through the mountaines, and so to rush in, and after the sea had dismembred * Caspe from Affricke, to have swallowed up much more by farre than is left behind to be seene: no nor to have let Propontis gush through Hellespont, and so to encroach againe upon the earth and gaine more ground: unlesse from the streights of Bosphorus also he enlarge himselfe into another huge and vast sea, and yet is never content, untill the lake Moeotis also with his streight, meet with him as he thus spreadeth abroad and floweth at libertie, and so joyne together and part as it were, their stolne good betweene them. And verily that all this is happened maugre the earth, and that it made all resistance that it could, appeareth evidently by so many streights and narrow passages lying between these two elements of so contrarie nature (considering that in Hellespont the space is not above 875 paces from land to land: and at the two Bosphori the sea is so passeable, that oxen or kine may swim at ease from the one side to the other: and hereupon they both took their name:) the which vicinitie serveth very well to entertaine and nourish amitie among nations, separated by nature one from another: and in this disunion as it were, appeareth yet a brotherly fellowship and unitie. For the cocks may be heard to crow, and the dogges to barke, from the one side to the other: yea and men out of these two worlds may parly one to another with audible voice, and have commerce of speech togither, if the weather be calme, and that the winds doe not carrie away the sound thereof.

Well, the measure some have taken of the sea, from Bosphorus Thracius unto the lake of Moeotis, and have accounted it to be 1438 miles and a halfe. But Eratosthenes reckoneth it lesse by one hundred. Agrippa saith, that from Chalcedon to Phasis, it is a thousand miles, and so to Bosphorous Cimmerius 360 miles. As for us, wee will set downe summarily and in general, the distances of places, according to the moderne knowledge of our nation in these daies, for as much as our armies have warred in the verie streight and mouth of this Cimmerian streight.

Being passed then from the streight of Bosphorus Thracius, we meet with the river Rhebas, which some have called Rhoesus:² and beyond it, Psillis³ another river: then, come we to the port of Calpas, and Sangarius one of the principall rivers of Asia: it ariseth in Phrygia: it receiveth other huge rivers into it, and among the rest Tembrogius and Gallus. The same Sangarius, was called also Coralius. After this river, begin the gulfes Mariandini, upon which is to be seene the towne Heraclea, situate upon the river Lycus. It is from the mouth of Pontus 200 miles. Beyond it is the port Acone, cursed for the venemous hearb and poisonous Aconitum, which taketh name thereof. Also the hole or cave Acherusia.⁴ Rivers also there be, Pedopiles,⁵ Callichorum, and Sonantes.⁶ One towne, Tium, eight and thirtie miles from Heraclea: and last of all, the River Bilis.⁷

Beyond this river Bilis, is the countrey Paphlagonia, which some have named Pylaemeniam,⁸ and it is enclosed with Galatia behind it. The first towne yee meet in it, is Mastya, built by the Milesians: and next to it, is Cromna. In this quarter the Heneti inhabite, as Cornelius Nepos saith. Moreover, from thence the Venetians in Italie, who beare their name, are descended, as he would have us beleeve. Neere to the said towne Cromna, is another called Sesamum in times past, and now Amastris. Also the mountaine Cytorus, 64 miles from Tium. When you are gone past this mountaine, you shall come to Cimolus and Stephane, two townes, and likewise to the river Parthenius: and so forward to the cape or promontorie Corambis, which reacheth forth a mightie way into the sea: and it is from the mouth of the sea Pontus 315 miles,⁹ or as others rather thinke, 350. As farre also it is from the streight Cimmerius, or as some would have it, 312 miles and an halfe. A towne there was also in times past of that name: and another likewise beyond it called Arminum: but now, there is to be seene the colonie Sinope, 164 miles from Citorum. Being past it, you fall upon the river Varetum, the people of Cappadocia, the townes Gazima, and Gazelum,¹⁰ and the river Halyto,¹¹ which issuing out of the foot of the hill Taurus, passeth through Cataonia and Cappadocia. Then meet you with these townes following, Gangre, Carissa, and the free citie Amisum, which is from Sinope 130 miles. As you travell farther, you shall see a gulfe carrying the name of the said towne, where the sea runneth so far within the land, that it seemeth to make Asia well-neere an Iland: for from thence to the gulfe Issicus in Cilicia, is not above 200 miles through the continent. In all which tract, there be no more than three nations which justly and by good right, may be called Greekes, to wit, the Dorians, Ionians, and Ææolians: for all the rest are reputed barbarous. Unto Amisum, there joyned the towne Eupatoria, founded by K. Mithridates:¹² and after that he was vanquished, both together tooke the name of Pompeiopolis.

In Cappadocia, there is a cittie well within the land, called Archelais, situate upon the river Halys: which Claudius Cæsar the Emperor erected as a colonie, and peopled it with Romane souldiers. There is besides a towne which the river Sarus runneth under: also Neo-cæsarea, which Lycus passeth by: and Amasia, with the river Iris running under it, within the country Gazacena. Moreover, in this quarter called Colopena, there stand Sebastia and Sebastopolis, little townes indeed, howbeit comparable with those abovesaid. In the other part of Cappadocia, there is the cittie Melita, built by queene Semiramis, not far from Euphrates: also, Dio-Cæsarea, Tyana, Castabala, Magnopolis, Zela: and under the mountaine Argæus, Mazaca, which now is named Cæsarea. That part of Cappadocia which lieth before Armenia the greater, is called Melitene: that which bordereth upon Comagene, Cataonia: upon Phrygia, Garsauritis: upon Sargaurasana, Cammaneum:¹³ and finally upon Galatia, Morimene. And there the river Cappadox seperateth the one from the other. Of this river the Cappadocians took name, wheras beforetime they were called Leucosyri. As for the lesse Armenia, the river Lycus devideth it from Neo-Cæsarea beforesaid. Within the countrey there runneth also the greater river Ceraunus. But on the coast side, when you are past the cittie Amysum, you meet with the towne Lycastum, and the river Chadisia: and once past them, you enter into the countrey Themiscyra. In this quarter also you may see the river Iris, bringing down with it another river Lycus that runneth into it. And in the midland parts there is the citie Ziela, ennobled for the overthrow of Triarius, whom C. Cæsar defeated with his whole armie.¹⁴ But in the coast againe you shall encounter the river Thermodon, which issueth from before a castle named Phanaroea, and passeth beside the foot of the mountain Amazonius. In which place there stood sometime a towne of that name, and other five, namely, Phamizonium, Themiscyra, Sotira, Amasia, Comana, at this present called Manteium.¹⁵

Moreover, in Pontus ye have the nations of the Genetæ and the Chalybes, together with a towne of Cotyi. People besides called Tibareni, and Mossyni, who brand and marke their bodie with hote searing yrons.¹⁶ Also the nation of the Macrocephali, with the town Cerasus, and the port Cordulææ. Beyond which you come to a people named Bechires, and Buzeri, and to the river Melas. And so forward to the quarter of the Macrones, Sideni, and so to the river Sydenum, upon which is situate the towne Polemonium, distant from Amisum 220 myles:¹⁷ where yee shall find the rivers Iasonius and Melanthius: and a towne 80 miles from Amisum, called Pharnacea: the castle and river of Tripolis. Item, Philocalia and Liviopolis without a river: and lastly the imperiall and free cittie Trapezus, environned with an high mountaine, 100 miles from Pharnacea. And being past Trapezus, you enter into the countrey of the Armenochalybes, and Armenia the greater: which are 30 myles asunder. But upon the coast you shall see the river Pyxites that runneth ever before Trapezus: and beyond it the countrey of the Sanni Heniochi. Moreover, the river Absarus, in the mouth whereof there is a castle likewise so named, from Trapezus 150 miles.¹⁸ Behind the mountains of that quarter, you meet with the region Iberia: but in the coast thereof of the Heniochi, Apreutææ and Lazi. The rivers Campseonysis, Nogrus, Bathys. When yee are once past them, you come into the countrey of the Colchians, where standeth the towne Matium, with the river Heracleum passing under it, and a Promontorie of that name, and last of all, the most renowned river of all Pontus, called Phasis. This river riseth from out of the Moschian mountaines, and for 38 miles and a halfe, is navigale, and beareth any great vessels whatsoever. And then for a great way it carrieth smaller bottomes, and hath over it 120 bridges. Beautified it was sometimes with many faire townes upon the bankes thereof on both sides, and the principall of them all, were Tyritaum,¹⁹ Cygnus, and the cittie Phasis situate in the very mouth thereof, as it falleth into the sea. But the goodliest cittie planted upon this river, and most famous of all the rest was Ææa, fifteene myles distant from the sea: where Hippos and Cyanos,²⁰ two mightie great rivers, comming from divers parts, enter both into the river Phasis. But now there is no count made of any but of Surium onely, which taketh name of the river Surium which runneth to it. And thus farre wee said that Phasis was capable of great ships. Among other rivers which it receiveth, for number and greatnesse admirable, is the river Glaucus. In the fosse and mouth of this river Phasis, where hee is discharged into the sea, there bee some little Islands of no reckoning. And there, from Bsarus it is 75 miles.²¹ Being past Phasis, you meet with another river called Charien: upon which bordereth the nation of the Salææ, named in old time Phthirophagi²² and Suani, where you shall meet with the river Cobus, which issueth out of Caucasus, and runneth through the countrey of the Suani abovesaid. Then you come to another river Rhoas, and so forward to the region Ecrectice: to the rivers Sigania, Tersos, Atelpos, Chrysorrhoas, and the people Absilææ: the castle Sebastopolis, a hundred miles from Phasis, the nation of the Sanigores, the towne Cygnus, the river and towne both called Pityus. And last of all wee arrive upon the countrey of the Heniochææ, where be nations entituled with many and sundrie names.

Next followeth the region of Colchis, which is likewise in Pontus: wherein the mountaine[s] Caucasus wind & turn toward the Rhiphææan hils, as hath been said before,²³ and that mountaine of the one side bendeth downe toward Euxinus, Pontus, and Mæotis; and of the other, enclineth to the Caspian and Hircane seas. When ye are descended to the maritime coasts, yee shall find many barbarous and savage nations there inhabiting, to wit, the Melanchlææni, and the Choruxi, where sometimes stood Dioscurias a cittie of the Colchians, neere unto the river Anthemus, which now lieth wast and dispeopled, notwithstanding it was so renowmed in times past, that by the report of Timosthenes, there repaired thither and inhabited therein 300 nations of diverse languages. And even afterwards our Romanes were forced to provide themselves of 130 interpreters, when they would negotiate and trafficke with the people in and about Dioscurias. Some there be that thinke how it was first founded by Amphitus and Telchius, who had the charge of the chariots of Castor and Pollux: for certain it is, that the fierce and wild nation of the Heniochi, are from them descended. Being passed Dioscurias, you come up the towne Heraclium, which from Sebastopolis is 80²⁴ miles distant: and so forward to the Achæi, Mardi, and Cercetæ: and after them to the Serri, and Cephalotomi. Far within that tract stood the most rich and wealthie towne Pitius, which by the Heniochians was ransacked and spoiled. On the back part thereof inhabite the Epagerites [a nation of the Sarmatians] even upon the mountaine Caucasus: and on the other side of that hill, the Sauromatæ (the countrey is at this day called Tartaria the great.²⁵) Hither retired and fled king Mithridates in the time of Claudius Cæsar the Emperor: who made report, that the Thali dwell thereby, and confine Eastward upon the very opening of the Caspian sea: which by his report remaineth drie, whensoever the sea doth ebbe. ²⁶ But now to returne to the coast neere unto the Cercetæ, you meet with the river Icarusa, with a towne and river called Hierum, 136 miles from Heracleum. Then come yee to the cape Cronea, in the very ridge and high pitch whereof the Toretæ inhabite. But beneath it you may see the cittie Sindica, 67 miles situate from Hierum: and last of all, you arrive upon the river Sceaceriges.²⁷

From the said river to the very entrance of the Cimmerian Bosphorus are counted 88 miles²⁸ But the length of the very demie Island, which extendeth and stretcheth out between Pontus and Mæotis, is not above 87 miles and a halfe, and the breadth in no place lesse than two acres of land. This the paisants of that countrey doe call Eione. The very coasts of this streight Bosphorus, both of Asia side and Europa, boweth and windeth like a curb to Moeotis. As touching the townes here planted, in the very first entrie thereof standeth Hermonassa, and then Cepi, founded by the Milesians. Being past Cepi, you come soone after to Stratilia, Phanagoria, and Apaturos, in manner unpeopled and void: and last of all, in the verie utmost point of the mouth where it falleth into the sea, you arrive at the towne Cimmerius, named beforetime Cerberian.

Being passed Cimmerium, you come to the very broad lake Moeotis, whereof we spake before in the Geographie of Europe.²⁹ Upon the coast whereof, beyond Cimmerium on the side of Asia, inhabite the Mæotici,³⁰ Vati, Serbi, Archi, Zingi, and Psesij. After this, you come to the great river Tanais, which runneth into Moeotis with two armes or branches: and on the sides of it dwell the Sarmatians, an offspring descended in old time (as men say) from the Medians: but so multiplyed now, that they themselves are divided and dispearsed into many nations. And first of are the Sauromatæ, surnamed Gynaecocratumeni, i. (as one would say) subject to women: from whence the Amazons are provided and furnished of men to serve their turne in stead of husbands.³¹ Next to them, are the Euazæ, Cottæ, Cicimeni, Messeniani, Costobocci, Choatræ, Zigæ, Dandari, Thussageræ, and Turcæ,³² even as farre as the wilderneses, forrests, chases, and rough valleys. But beyond them are the Arnuphæi, who confine upon the mountaine Rhiphæi. As for the river Tanais, the Scithians call it Silys: and Moeotis, they name Temerinda, that is to say, the mother of the sea, or rather, the seas end.³³ In auncient time there stood a great town upon the very mouth of Tanais, where it falleth into the sea.³⁴ As for the neighbour borders of this sea, inhabited they were sometime by the Lares:³⁵ afterwards, by the Clazomenij and Moeones; and in processe of time, by the Panticapenses. Some Authours write, that about Moeotis toward the higher mountaines Ceraunij, these nations following doe inhabite, to wit, first upon the very coast and sea side, the Napææ:³⁶ and above them, the Essedones, joyning upon the Colchi, and the high mountaine [Corax.]³⁷ After them, the Carmaces, the Oranes, Anticæ, Mazacæ, Ascantici, Acapeates, Agagammatæ, Phycari, Rhimosoli, and Ascomarci.³⁸ Moreover, upon the hill Caucasus, the Icatales, Imaduches, Ranes, Anclaks, Tydians, Charastasci, and Ascuiandes. Moreover, along the river Lagous, issuing out of the mountains Cathei, and into which Opharus runneth, these nations ensuing doe dwell, to wit, the Caucadians,³⁹ and the Opharites: beyond whome, runneth the rivers Menotharus, and Immitues, out of the mountaines Cissij, which passeth through the Agedi, Carnapes, Gardei, Accisi, Gabri, and Gregari: and about the source or spring of this river Imitues, the people Imitui and Apartheni.⁴⁰ Others say, that the Suites,⁴¹ Auchetes, Satarnei, and Asampates, invaded and conquered these parts; and that the Tanaites and Nepheonites, were by them put to the edge of the sword, and not one person of them spared. Some write, that the river Opharius⁴² runneth through the Canteci, and the Sapæi: and that the river Tanais traversed sometime through the Phatareans, Herticei, Spondolici, Synthietæ, Amassi, Issi, Catareti, Tagori, Catoni, Neripi, Agandei, Mandarei, Saturchei, and Spalei.

Hitherto have we treated and gone through the nations and inhabitants of the coasts upon the Mediterranean sea. Now are wee to speake of the people inhabiting in the verie midland parts of the maine within: wherein I protest, and denie not, but that I will deliver many things otherwise than the auncient Geographers have set downe: forasmuch as I have made diligent search into the state of those regions, as well by enquirie of Domitius Corbulo (who lately went with an armie through those quarters⁴³) as of divers kings and princes, who made repaire to Rome with suites and supplications, but especially of those kings sonnes that were left as hostages in Rome. And first to begin with the nation of the Cappadocians. This is a country that of all others which bound upon Pontus, reacheth farthest within the firme land: for on the left hand it passeth by both Armenias, the greater and the lesse, and Comagene: and on the right, all those nations in Asia before-named: confining many others: and still prevailing with great might, growing on and climing Eastward up to the mountaine Taurus, it passeth beyond Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Cilicia: and with that quarter which is called Cataonia, pierceth above the tract of Antiochia, and reacheth as far as to the region Cyrrhestica, which lyeth well within that countrey. And therefore the length of Asia there, may contain 1250 miles, and the breadth 640.

The greater Armenia, beginning at the mountaines Pariedri, is divided from Cappadocia by the river Euphrates, as hath been said before:⁴⁴ and where the river Euphrates beginneth to turne his course from Mesopotamia, by the river Tigris as renowmed as the other. Both these rivers it is furnished withall, which is the cause that it taketh the name of Mesopotamia, as being situate between them both. The maine land which lyeth betweene, is possessed by the mountaines of Arabia called Orei:⁴⁵ howbeit, it extendeth untill it confine upon Adiabene. Being past it once, it is hemmed in with mountaines that encounter it overthwart, which cause it to enlarge it selfe into a breadth on the left hand, as far as to the river Cyrus: and then it turneth ever crosse, untill it meet with the river Araxes: but it carrieth his length into the lesser Armenia, confining still upon the river Absarus, which falleth into the Ponticke sea: and the mountaines Pariedri (from which the said river issueth) which divide it from the lesse Armenia. As for the river Cyrus, it springeth in the mountaines Heniochij, which some have called Coraxici. But Araxes issueth out of the same mountaine from whence Euphrates commeth, and there is not above sixe miles space betweene them both. This river Araxes is augmented with the river Musis;⁴⁶ and then himselfe looseth also his name, and as most have thought, is carried by the river Cyrus into the Caspian sea. As for the townes of name in the lesse Armenia, they be these, Cæsarea, Asia,⁴⁷ and Nicopolis. In the greater, yee have Arsamole,⁴⁸ fast upon the river Euphrates; likewise Carcathiocerta, situate upon Tigris. In the higher countrey, is the citie Tigranocerta,⁴⁹ built in the plaine beneath, near unto Araxes, Artaxara. Aufidius saith, that both the Armeniæ containe in all 500 miles. Claudius Cæsar reporteth, that in length from Dascusa, to the confines of the Caspian sea, it taketh 1300 miles, and in breadth halfe so much, to wit from Tigranocerta to Iberia. This is well knowne, that divided it is into certaine regiments, which they call Strategians; and yet some of them in old time, were as large each of them as realmes and kingdomes: and to the number they were of 120, but such barbarous names they had, that they cannot well be set downe in writing.⁵⁰ Enclosed it is Eastward with the mountaines, but neither the hills Ceraunij, nor yet the region Adiabene, doe presently and immediatly confine thereupon: for the countrey of the Sopheni lyeth betweene: then you come to the mountaines aforesaid; and being past them, you enter into the countrey of the Adiabenes. But on that coast where the plaines lye and the flat valleys, the next neighbours to Armenia be the Menobardi and Moscheni. As for Adiabene, environed it is partly with the river Tigris, and partly compassed with unaccessible steepe mountaines. On the left hand, it confineth upon the Medians, and hath a prospect to the Caspian sea, the which commeth out of the Ocean (as we shall shew in meet and convenient place⁵¹) and is enclosed wholly within the mountaines of Caucasus. As for the nations there inhabiting along the marches and confines of Armenia, now will we speake of them.

All the plaine countrey betweene Armenia and the river Cyrus, the Albanois of Asia do inhabite. Being past it, you enter anon into the Iberians region, who are separated from the Albanois afore-said by the river Alazon, which runneth downe from the Caucasian hills into Cyrus. The towns of importance, in Albania, is Cabalaca; in Iberia, Harmastis, neere to the river Neoris: beyond which, is the region Thasie, and Triare, as farre as to the mountaines Partedori.⁵² And when you are past them, you enter into the deserts of Cholchis: and on the side of them which lyeth toward the Ceraunij, the Armenochalybes do inhabite: and so foward you come into the tract and marches of the Moschi, which extend to the river Iberus, that runneth into Cyrus. Beneath them, inhabite the Sacassani, and beyond them the Macroniens, who reach even to the river Absarus. Thus you see how the plaines and the hanging of the hills in these parts, are inhabited. Againe, from the marches and frontiers of Albania, all the forefront of the hills is taken up and possessed by the savage people of the Sylvi; and beneath them, of the Lubienes, and so forward by the Didurians, and Sodij.

When ye are beyond the Sodij, you come to the streights of the hill Caucasus, which many have erroniously called Caspiæ Portæ. And certes, Nature hath perfourmed a mightie peece of worke, in cleaving asunder at one instant those mountaines, where the gates were barred up as it were with iron portculleises, whiles under the mids thereof, the river Dyriodorus runneth: and on this side of it, standeth a strong fort and castle called Cumania, situate upon a rock, able to impeach an armie never so puissant and innumerable that would passe thereby; in such sort as in this place by meanes of these bar-gates, one part of the world is excluded from the other: and namely most of all they seeme to be set opposite as a rampart against Harmastis a towne of Iberia. But being passed these said gates, you come to the mountaines Gordyei, where the Valli and Suarni, barbarous and savage nations, are imployed onely in the mines of gold.⁵³ Beyond them as farre as to the Ponticke sea, you enter into the countrey of the Heniochi, whereof be many sorts: and soone after, to the Achei. And thus much as touching this tract of the sea Ponticke, and of the most renowmed gulfes of all. Some have set downe in writing, that betweene Pontus and the Caspian sea, it is not above 375 miles. Cornelius Nepos saith it is but 150. See into what great streights between both seas Asia is driven again, and as it were thronged. Claudius Cæsar hath reported, that from Cimmerius Bosphorus unto the Caspian sea, it is 150 miles, and that Seleucus Nicator purposed if he had lived, to cut the land through from the one side to the other: but in this purpose of his, himselfe was cut short and slaine by Ptolomæus Ceraunus. To conclude, it is in manner held for certein, that from those gates of Caucasus unto the Ponticke sea, it is 200 miles and no lesse.

In the Ponticke sea, lyeth the Islands Planctæ, otherwise Cyaneæ or Symplegades. Then Apollonia, named also Thynnias, for distinction sake from that other so named in Europe: it is from the continent one mile, and is in circuit three. Iust over-against Pharnacea, is the Isle Chalceritis, which the Greekes called Aria, consecrated as it were to Mars; wherein they say the foules that are used to fight and flutter with their wings against all other birds that come thither.

HAVING thus sufficiently discoursed of all the countries within the firme land of Asia, let us now determine to pass over the Rhiphæan hilles, and discover the coasts of the Ocean which lye on the right hand of those hills. Wherein we have to consider, that Asia is dashed and beaten upon by this maine sea on three parts: to wit, on the North side, and there it is called Scythicus: on the East, where they call it Eous: and last from the South, and there they name it Indicus. And according to the sundrie gulfes and creekes that it maketh, and the inhabitants by whome it passeth, many names it taketh. Howbeit, a great part of Asia toward the North, lyeth desert, and hath in it much wildernesse inhabitable,⁵⁴ by reason of the extreme cold of that frozen climate, so subject to the Pole Arcticke. But being once past the utmost quarter of the North point, and came to the Northeast where the sunne ariseth at midsommer, then you come to the Scythians. Beyond whome, and the very point of the North pole and the wind from thence, some have placed the Hyperborei; of whome we have spoken at large in the treatise of Europe.⁵⁵ On this side of the Hyperborei, the first cape or promontorie that you meet withall in the countrey Celtica, is named Lytarmis: and then you come into the river Carambucis, where, by the forcible influence of the starres, the high mountaines Rhiphæa, as being wearied, begin to settle and abase themselves lower. At the fall and descent of which mountaines, I have heard say, that certaine people named Arnupheæ⁵⁶ inhabited: a nation not much unlike in their manner of life to the Hyperboreans. They have their habitations in forrests: their feeding is upon berries of trees: shorne they be all and shaven, for both women and men count it a shame to have haire on their heads: otherwise they are civile enough in their conversation and behavior: and therefore, by report, they are held for a sacred people and inviolable, in so much as those cruell nations and inhumane that border upon them, will offer them no abuse; neither do they respect them onely, but also in regard and honour of them, they forbeare those also that flie unto them as to a place of franchise and priviledge. Goe beyond them once, you come among the ** Scythians indeed, the Cimmerij, Cicianthi,⁵⁷ Georgi, and the nation of the Amazons, and these confront the Caspian or Hircan sea: for it breaketh forth of the deep Scithian Ocean, toward the back parts of Asia, and taketh divers names of the inhabitants coasting upon it, but especially above all other of the Caspians and Hircaneans. Clitarchus is of this opinion, that this sea is full as great and large as Pontus Euxinus. And Eratosthenes setteth down the very measure and pourprise thereof: namely, from East to South along the coast of Cadusia and Albania, 5400 stadia: from thence by the Aratiaticks, Amarbi, and Hircanij, to the mouth of the river Zoum, 4800 stadia: from it to the mouth of Iaxartes where it falleth into the sea, 2400 stadia: which beeing put together amount in all to 1575 miles. Artemidorus counteth lesse by 25 miles. Agrippa in bounding out and limiting the circuit of the Caspian sea, and the regions coasting upon it, togither with them Armenia both the greater and the lesse, namely Eastward with the Ocean of the Seres, Westward with the mountains of Caucasus, on the South side with the hill Taurus, and finally on the North with the Scithian Ocean, hath written, That the whole precinct and compasse of these parts may contain in length [so far as is known and discovered of those countries] 590 miles, and 290 in breadth. Yet for all this, there want not others who say, That the whole circuit of that sea, and begin at the very mouth and firth thereof, ariseth to 2500 miles. As for this mouth aforesaid where it breaketh into the sea, it is very narrow, but exceeding long: howbeit when it beginneth once to enlarge it selfe and grow wide, it turneth and fetcheth a compasse with horned points like to a quarter moon, and after the manner of a Scithian bow, as M. Varro saith, it windeth along from his mouth toward the lake Moeotis. The first gulfe that it maketh, is called Scythicus; for the Scithians inhabit both sides, and by the meanes of the narrow streight between, have commerce and trafficke one with another: for of the one side are the Nomades and Sauromatæ, comprising under them many other nations of sundry names: and on the other, the Abzoæ, who have no fewer states under them. At the very entry of this sea on the right hand, the Udines, a people of the Scithians, dwell upon the very point of this mouth: and then along the coast, the Albanois, a nation descended (as men say) from Iason; where the sea lying before them is called Albanum. This nation is spread also upon the mountaines of Caucasus, and so along downe the hils as far as to the river Cyrus, which confineth the marches betweene Armenia and Iberia, as hath been said. Above the maritime coasts of Albania and Udines country, the Sarmatians, called Utidorsi, and Aroteres, are planted: and behind them, the Amazons, whome we have alreadie shewed; who also are women Sauromatians. The rivers of Albanie which fall into the sea, are Cassios and Albanos: and then Cambises, which hath his head in the Caucasian mountains: and soon after Cyrus, which ariseth out of the hils Corax, as before is said. Moreover Agrippa writeth, that this whole coast of Albanie (fortified with those high and inaccessible mountains of Caucasus) containeth 425 miles. Now when you are past the river Cyrus, the Caspian sea beginneth to take that name, for that the Caspians do inhabite the coast thereof. And here the error of many is to be laid upon and corrected, even of those also who were in the last voyage with Corbulo in Armenia with the Romane armie: for they tooke it, that those gates of Caucasus whereof wee spake before, were the Caspian gates, and so called them: and the verie mappes and descriptions which are painted and sent from thence, beare that name and title. Likewise the menacing commaundements, and threatning commissions sent out by Nero the Emperour⁵⁸ for to gaine and conquer those gates, which through Iberia lead into Sarmatia, made mention of the gates Caspiæ there, which had in a manner no passage at all to the Caspian sea, by reason that the mountaine Caucasus empeached it. Howbeit in very truth, there be other gates so called, which joyn upon the Caspian nations, which we had never known from the other, but by relation of those that accompanied Alexander the Great in his voyage and expedition to those parts. For the realme and kingdome of the Persians, which at this day wee take that the Parthians hold, lyeth aloft betweene the Persian and Hircane seas upon the mountaines of Caucasus, in the very hanging and descent thereof, on both sides confining upon Armenia the greater: and on that part which lyeth to Comagene, confronteth and joyneth (as we have said) upon Sepheniæ: and upon it againe bordereth Adiabene, where the realme of the Assyrians doth begin: whereof Arbelitis, which boundeth next upon Syria, taketh up a good part: which is the country wherein Alexander the Great discomfited and vanquished Darius. All this tract, the Macedonians who entred with Alexander, surnamed Mygdonia, for the resemblance of that in Greece from which they came.⁵⁹ Townes of name there be in it, Alexandria, and Antiochia, which they call Nisibis: and from Artaxata it is 750 miles. There was also another cittie called Ninus or Ninive,⁶⁰ seated upon the river Tygris, which regarded the West, which in times past was highly renowmed. But on the other side, where it lieth toward the Caspian sea, lyeth the region Atropatene, separated by the river Araxes, from Orene in Armenia: wherin is the citie Gazæ, 450 miles from Artaxata: and as many from Ecbatana in Media, wheron some part the Atropatenes doe hold.

As for Ecbatana the head citie of Media, Seleucus the king founded it: and it is from Seleucia the great 750 miles: and from the Caspian gates 20. The other great townes of importance in Media, be Phausia, Agamzua, and Apamia, named also Rhaphane.⁶¹ And as for the streights there, called the Caspian gates, the same reason is there of that name, as of the other by Caucasus; by reason that the mountaine is cloven and broken through, and hath so narrow a lane, that hardly a waine or cart is able to passe by it, and that for the length of 8 miles: all done by the picke-axe and mans hand. The rockes and cliffes that hang over on the one side and the other, be like as if they were scortched and halfe-burnt: so dry and thirstie is all that tract, and without fresh water for 38 miles space:⁶² for all the liquor and moisture issuing out of those craggie rockes, runneth through it, which letteth the passage and causeth folke to avoid that way. Besides, such a number of serpents doe there haunt, that no man dare passe that way but in winter onely.

Unto Adiabene, joyneth the countrey of the Carduchi, so called in times past, and now Cordueni, by which the river Tigris runneth: and upon them the Pratitæ doe confine, called also Paredoni,⁶³ who keepe the hold of the Caspian gates aforesaid. On the other side of whome, you shall meet with the deserts of Parthia, and the mountaine Cithenus: but being passed that once, you come streight into the most pleasant and beautifull tract of the same Parthia, called Choara: and there, stand two citties of the Parthians, built sometimes as forts opposite against the Medians: namely, Calliope and Issatis, situate in times past upon another rocke. As for the capitall cittie of all Parthia, Hecatompylos, it is from the Caspian gates abovesaid 133 miles. Thus you see how the kingdome of the Parthians also is limited and separated by these mountaines and streights. When a man is once gotten forth of these gates, presently he entreth upon the Caspians country, which reacheth as farre as to the sea side, and gave the name as well to it as to the gates afore-named. Howbeit all the region upon the left hand is ful of mountains: from whence backward to the river Cyrus, are by report 220 miles,⁶⁴ but from that river if you would goe higher up to those gates, you shall find it 700 miles. And in very truth from this place began Alexander to make the account and reckoning of his journies, in that voyage of his to India, saying, that from those gates to the entance of India, it was 15680 stadia: from thence to the citie Bacha, which they call Zariaspa 3700, and so to the river Iaxartes 5 miles.

From the Caspians countrey Eastward, lieth the region called Zapanortene,⁶⁵ & in it the land Daricum,⁶⁶ the most fertile tract of all those parts. Then come you to the Tapyrians, Anariaci, Stauri and Hircani, at whose coasts the same sea beginneth to take the name Hircanum, even from the river Syderis. About it are other rivers, to wit, Mazeras and Stratos, all issuing out of Caucasus. Out of the realme of Hircania, you enter into the countrey Margiana, so commendable for the warme Sunneshine weather there, and the onely place in all that quarter which yeeldeth vines. Environned it is on every side with goodly pleasant hils to the eie, for the compasse of 1500 stadia. Fortified it is besides, and affourdeth hard accesse unto it by reason of the sandie and barren desarts for the space of 120 myles. And situate it is even against the tract of Parthia, wherein Alexander the great sometime had built Alexandria, which being rased and destroied by the Barbarians, Antiochus the son of Seleucus reedified in the same place upon the river Margus, which runneth through it, together with another river Zocale, and it was called ^†† Syriana. Howbeit, he desired rather that it should be named Antiochia. This cittie containeth in circuit 70 stadia: and into it, Orodes after that hee had defeated Crassus and his hoast, brought all the Romanes whom he had taken prisoners.⁶⁷ Being past the high country Margiana, you come to the region of the Mardi, a fierce & savage people, subject unto none, they inhabit the mountaine Caucasus, and reach as farre as to the Bactrians. Beyond that tract are these nations, the Ochanes, Chomares, Berdrigei, Hermatotrophi, Bomarci, Commani, Marucæi, Mandrueni, and Iatij. The rivers also, Mandrus and Gridinus. Beyond inhabite the Chorasmij, Gandari, Attasini, Paricani, Sarangæ, Parrasini, Maratiani, Nasotiani, Aorsi, Gelæ, whom the Greekes called Cadusij, and the Matiani.⁶⁸ Moreover, in it stood the great towne Heraclea, built by Alexander the great, which afterwards was subverted and overthrowne: but when it was repaired againe by Antiochus, he named it Achaias.⁶⁹ Beneath in the countrey, the Derbines do inhabite, through whose marches in the very middest, runneth the river Oxus, which hath his beginning out of a lake called Oxus. Beyond them are the Syrmatæ, Oxij, Tagæ, Heniochi, Bateni, Saraparæ, and Bactrians, with their towne Zariaspe, called afterwards Bactrum, of the river Bactra. This nation inhabiteth the backe parts of the hill Paropamisus, overagainst the source and spring of the river Indus, and is environned with the river Ochus. Beyond the Bactrianes are the Sogdianes, and Panda the principall cittie of that countrey. In the very utmost marches of their territorie standeth the towne Alexandria built by Alexander the great, wherein are to bee seene the Altars and Columnes, erected by Hercules, prince Bacchus, Cyrus, Semiramis, and Alexander:⁷⁰ supposed and taken to be the very end of all their voiages in that part of the world, resting within the river Iaxartes, which the Scythians call Silys. For Alexander and his souldiours thought it had beene Tanais. Howbeit, captaine Demonax,⁷¹ who served under the kings Seleucus and Antiochus, passed over that river with an armie, and at the end of the voiage set up altars unto Apollo Didymæus. And this Demonax wee follow, especially n this description and Geographie of ours.

Beyond the realme Sogdiana, inhabit the nations of the Scythians. The Persians were wont to call them in generall Sacas, of a people adjoining them, so named. In old time they were known by the name of Arameans. And on the other side, the Scythians for their part use to tearme the Persians, Chorsari: and the hill Caucasus, they called Graucasus, that is to say, white with snow. The principall nations of Scythia, bee the Saræ, Massagetæ, Dahæ, Essedones, Ariacæ, Rhymnici, Pesici, Amordi, Histi, Edones, Camæ, Camacæ, Euchatæ, Cotieri, Antariani, Pialæ, Arimaspi beforetime called Cacidiri,⁷² Asæi and Oetei. As for the Napæans & Apellæans who sometime dwelt there, they be utterly extinct and gone.⁷³ The rivers there of name bee Mandagræus and Caspasius. And surely there is not a region wherein Geographers doe varie and disagree more than in this: and as I take it, this commeth of the infinite number of those nations, wandering to and fro, and abiding never in one place. Alexander the great and M. Varro make report, that the water of the Scythian sea is fresh in tast, and potable. And in truth Pompey the great had such water brought unto him from thence to drinke, when he waged warre thereby against Mithridates: by reason no doubt of the great rivers that fall into it, which overcome the saltnesse of the water. Varro saith moreover, That during this expedition and journie of Pompeius, it was for certaine knowne, that it is but seven daies journey from out of India to the Bactrians countrey, even as farre as to the river Icarus⁷⁴ which runneth into Oxus: and that the merchandise of India, transported by the Caspian sea, and so to the river Cyrus, may bee brought in five daies by land as farre as to Phasis in Pontus. Many Islands there lie all over that sea: but one above the rest, and most renowned, is Tazata: for thither all the shipping from out of the Caspian sea and the Scythian ocean, doe bend their course and there arrive:⁷⁵ for that all the sea coasts doe affront the Levant, and turne into the East. The frontiers of Scythia from the first cape therof, is unhabitable by reason of the snow that lieth continually: neither are the next regions therto frequented and tilled, for the barbarous crueltie of those nations that border upon it: such as the Anthropophagi, who live of mans flesh, and haunt those parts. Hereupon it commeth, that you shall find nothing there but huge desart forrests, with a number of wild beasts, lying in wait for men as savage as themselves. When you are past this region, you enter againe among the Scythians, where you shall find likewise a wildernesse full of wild beasts, even as far as to the promontorie and mountaine called Tabis, which regardeth the sea. In such sort as one moietie in manner of that coast, all along which looketh toward the East, lieth wast, and is not inhabited. The first people of any knowledge and acquaintance, be the Seres, famous for the fine silke that their woods doe yeeld. They kembe from the leaves of their trees the hoarie downe thereof, and when it is steeped in water, they card and spin it, yea, and after their manner make thereof a sey or web, wherupon the dames here with us have a double labor both of undoing, and also of weaving againe this kind of yearne. See what adoe there is about it, what labour and toile it costeth, and how farre fet it is: and all for this, that our ladies and wives when they goe abroad in the street may cast a lustre from them, and shine againe in their silkes and velvets.⁷⁶ As for the Seres, a mild and gentle kind of people they are by nature: howbeit, in this one point they resemble the bruit and wild beasts, for that they cannot away in the commerce with other nations, with the fellowship and societie of men, but shun and avoid their companie, notwithstanding they desire to ^††† trafficke with them. The first river known among them is Psitaras: the next to it, Carabi:⁷⁷ the third Lanos: and then you come to a cape of that name. Beyond it is the gulfe Chryse, the river Attanos, and another bay or creeke called Attanos. By it lieth the region of the Attaci,⁷⁸ a kind of people, secluded from all noisome wind and aire, keeping upon hils, exposed to the pleasant Sunne shine, where they enjoy the same temperature of aire, that the Hiperboreans live in. Of this countrey and people, Amonetus hath written a severall booke of purpose: like as Heratæus hath compiled such another treatise of the Hyperboreans. Beyond the Attaci or Attacores, the Thyrians and Tocharians⁷⁹ do inhabit; yea, and the Casirians, who now by this time belong to the Indians, and are a part of them. But they within-forth that lie toward the Scythians, feed of mans flesh.⁸⁰ As for the Nomades of India, they likewise wander to and fro, and keepe no resting place. Some write, that they confine upon the very Ciconians and Brysanians on the North side. But there (as all Geographers doe agree) the mountaines Emodi arise and shoot up: and there entereth the countrey of the East Indians, and extendeth not onely to that sea,⁸¹ but also to the Southerne, which wee have named the Indian sea. And this part of the Orientall Indians, which lieth directly streight forth, as farre as to that place where India beginneth to twine and bend toward the Indian sea, containeth 1875 miles. And all that tract which windeth and turneth along the South, taketh 2475 myles (as Eratosthenes hath collected and set downe) even unto the river Indus, which is the utmost limit of India Westward. But many other writers have set downe the whole length of India in this manner, namely, that it requireth 40 daies and nights sailing, with a good gale of a fore-wind: also, that from North to the South coast thereof, is 2750 myles.⁸² Howbeit, Agrippa hath put downe in writing that it is 3003 miles long, and 2003 broad.⁸³ Posidonius took measure of it from the Northeast to the Southeast: and that by this means it is directly opposite unto Gaule, which hee likewise measured along the West coast, even from the Northwest point where the Sunne goeth downe at Midsummer, to the Southwest where it setteth in the middest of Winter. He addeth moreover and saith, That this West wind which from behind Gaule bloweth upon India, is very healthsome and holesome for that countrey, and this he proved by very good reason and demonstration. And verily the Indians have a farre different aspect of the skie from us. Other starres rise in their Hemisphære, which we see not. Two Summers they have in one yeere, and as many harvests: and their Winter between hath the Etesian winds blowing in our dogdaies, in steed of the Northren blasts with us. The winds are kind & mild with them: the sea alwaies navigable: the nations there dwelling, and the citties and towns there built, innumerable, if a man would take in hand to reckon them all. For India hath been discovered, not onely by Alexander the great his mightie and puissant armie, and by other kings his successours, (and namely Seleucus and Antiochus, & their Admirall Patrocles, who sailed about it even to the Hircane and Caspian seas:) but also by diverse other Greek Authors, who making abode, and sojourning with the kings of India (like as Megasthenes and Dionysius sent thither of purpose from Philadelphus) have made relation of the forces which those nations are able to raise and maintaine. And yet further diligence is to bee emploied still in this behalfe, considering they wrote of things there so diverse one from another, and incredible withall. They that accompanied Alexander the great in his Indian voiage, have testified in their writings, that in one quarter of India which hee conquered, there were of townes 500 in number, and not one lesse than the citie Cos: of severall nations nine.⁸⁴ Also that India was a third part of the whole earth: and the same so well inhabited, that the people in it were innumerable. And this they delivered (beleeve me) not without good apparence of reason: for the Indians were in manner the onely men of all others that never went out of their owne countrey. Moreover, it is said, That from the time of Bacchus unto Alexander the great, there reigned over them successively 154 kings, for the space of 5402 yeeres betweene, and three moneths over.⁸⁵ As for the rivers in that countrey, they be of a wonderfull bignesse. And reported it is, that Alexander sailed every day at the least 600 stadia upon the river Indus, and yet in lesse than five months and some few daies over, hee could not come to the end of that river: and lesse it is than Ganges by the confession of all men. Furthermore, Seneca a Latine writer, assaied to write certaine commentaries of India: wherein he hath made report of 60 rivers therein, and of nations, 120 lacking twaine. As great a labour it were to reckon up and number the mountaines that bee in it. As for the hils Imaus, Emmodius, Parapamisus, as parts all and members of Caucasus,⁸⁶ butt one one upon another, and conjoine together. And being past them yee goe downe into a mightie large plaine countrey, like to Ægypt. It remaineth now to shew the continent and firme land of this great countrey, and for the more evident demonstration, let us follow the steps of Alexander the great, and his Historiographers. Diogneus, and Beton who set downe all the geasts & journies of that prince, have left in writing, That from the Caspian ports unto the citie Hecatompylos which is in Parthia, there are as many miles as we have set down alreadie.⁸⁷ From thence to Alexandria in the Ariane countrey (which citie the same king founded) 562 myles:⁸⁸ from whence to Prophthasia in the Dranganes land, 199 miles: and so forward to the capitoll towne of the Arachosians, 515 myles. From thence to Orthospanum, 250 myles: last of all, from it to the cittie of Alexandria in Opianum, 50 myles. In some copies these numbers are found to varie and differ.⁸⁹ But to returne to this foresaid citie, situate it is at the very foot of Caucasus. From which to the river Chepta and Pencolaitis,⁹⁰ a towne of the Indians, are counted 227 myles. From thence to the river Indus and the towne Tapila,⁹¹ 60 myles: and so onward to the noble and famous river Hidaspes, 120 myles: from which to Hypasis, a river of no lesse account than the other 4900, or 3900.⁹² And there an end of Alexanders voiage. Howbeit, he passed over the river, and on the other side of the banke, hee erected certaine altars or pillers, and there dedicated them. The letters also of the king himselfe, sent backe into Greece, do carie the like certificate of his journies, and agree just herewith. The other parts of the countrie were discovered & surveied by Seleucus Nicator: namely from thence to Hesudrus 168 miles: to the river Ioames as much: and some copies adde 5 miles more therto: from thence to Ganges 112 miles: to Rhodapha 119, and some say, that between them two it is no lesse than 325 miles. From it to Calinipaxa, a great town 167 miles & an halfe, others say 265. And to⁹³ the confluent of the rivers Iomanes and Ganges, where both meet together 225 miles, and many put thereto 13 miles more: from thence to the town Palibotta 425 miles: and so to the mouth of Ganges where he falleth into the sea 638 miles. As for the nations, which it paines me not to name, from the mountaines Emodi, & the principall cape of them, Imaus, which signifieth in that country language full of snow, they be these: the Isari, Cosyri, Izgi, & upon the very mountains, the Ghisiotosagi:⁹⁴ also the Brachmanæ,⁹⁵ a name common to many nations, among whom are the Maccocalingæ. Of rivers besides, there are Pinnas & Cainas, the later of which twain runneth into Ganges, & both are navigable. The people called Calingæ, coast hard uupon the sea. But the Mandei and Malli, among whom is the mountaine Mallus, are above them higher in the countrey. And to conclude, then you come to Ganges, the farthest bound and point of all that tract, India.

Many have beene of opinion, and so have written, that the spring of Ganges is uncertain, like as that also of Nilus: and that he swelleth, overfloweth, and watereth all the countries whereby he passeth, in the same sort that Nilus doth. Others again have said that it issueth out of the mountaines of Scythia: and how into it there run 19 other great rivers: of which over and above those beforenamed, certaine are navigable, namely, Canucha, Vama,⁹⁶ Erranoboa, Cosaogus, and Sonus. There bee also that report, that Ganges presently ariseth to a great bignesse of his owne sources and springs, and so breaketh forth with great noise and violence, as running downe with a fall over craggie and stonie rockes: and when hee is once come into the flat plaines and even countrey, that he taketh up his lodging in a certaine lake: and then out of it carrieth a mild and gentle streame, 8 miles broad where it is narrowest: and 100 stadia over for the most part, but 160 where he is largest: but in no place under 20 paces deepe, [i. a 100 foot.]

When yee are over Ganges, the first region upon the coast that you set foot into, is that of the Gandaridæ and Calingæ, called Parthalis.⁹⁸ The king of this countrey hath in ordinance for his warres 80000 foot,⁹⁹ 1000 horse, and 700 elephants, readie upon an houres warning to march. As for the other nations of the Indians that live in the champion plaine countries, there be diverse states of them, of more civilitie than the mountainers. Some applie themselves to tillage and husbandry: others set their minds upon martiall feats: one sort of them practise merchants trade, transporting their owne commodities into other countries, and bringing in forraine merchandise into their owne. As for the nobilitie and gentrie, those also that are the richest and mightiest among them, they manage the affaires of State and Commonweale, and sit in place of justice, or else follow the court, and sit in counsell with the king. A fift estate there is besides in great request, & namely of Philosophers and Religions, given wholly to the studie of wisdome and learning; and these make profession of voluntarie death: and verily, when they are disposed to die at any time, they make a great funeral fire, cast themselves into it, and so end their daies. Besides all these, one thing there is amongst them halfe brutish, and of exceeding toile & travell (and yet it is that which partly maintaineth all the other estates abovesaid) namely, the practise of hunting, chasing and taming Elephants. And in very truth, with them they plough their ground, upon them they ride up and downe: with these beasts are they best acquainted: they serve in the wars for the maintenance of their libertie, & defence of their frontiers against all invasion of enemies. In the choise of them for warre-service, they regard and consider their strength, their age, and bignesse of bodie. But to leave them. An Islnd there is within the river Ganges, between two armes thereof, of great largenesse and capacitie, which receiveth one nation by it selfe, apart from others, and named it is Modogalica. Beyond it are seated the Modubians and Molindians, where standeth the stately cittie Molinda,¹⁰⁰ situate in a plentifull and rich soile. Moreover, the Galmodroesians, Pretians, Calissæ, Sasuri, Passalæ, Colubæ, Orxulæ, Abali, and Taluctæ. The king of these countries hath in ordinarie for his warres 50000 foot, 3000 horse, and 400 Elephants.¹⁰¹ Then you enter into a countrey of a more puissant and valiant nation, to wit, the Andarians, planted with many villages well peopled: and moreover with thirtie great townes, fortified with strong walls, towers, & bastiles. These find and maintaine prest and readie to serve the king in his wars, an Infanterie of 100000 foot, a Cavallerie of 2000 horse, and a 1000 Elephants¹⁰² besides, well appointed. Of all the regions of India, the Dardanian countrey is most rich in gold mines; and the Selian, in silver. But above all the nations of India throughout, and not of this tract and quarter onely, the Prasij farre exceed in puissance, wealth, and reputation; where the most famous, rich and magnificient citie Palibotria standeth: whereof some have named the people about it, yea and all the nation generally beyond Ganges, Palibotrians. Their king keepeth continually in pay 600000 footmen, 30000 horsmen, and 9000 Elephants, every day in the yeere. Whereby you may soone guesse the mightie power and wealth of this prince. Beyond Palibotria, more within the firme land, inhabite the Monedes and Suari, where standeth the mountaine Maleus: and there for sixe moneths space, the shadowes in winter time fall Northward; and in summer season, goe into the South. The pole Arcticke starres in all that tract, are seene but once in the yeere, and that, no longer than for 15 dayes, as Beton maketh report:¹⁰³ but Megasthenes writeth, that this is usuall in other parts of India. The Antarctick or South pole, the Indians call Dromosa.¹⁰⁴ As for the river Iomanes, which runneth into Ganges, it traverseth through the Palibotrians countrey, and passeth between the townes Methora and Cyrisoborca.¹⁰⁵ Beyond the river Ganges, in that quarter and climate which lyeth Southward, the people are caught with the sunne, and begin to be blackish: but yet not all out so sun-burnt and black indeed as the Moores and Æthiopians. And it seemeth, that the neerer they approach to the river Indus, the deeper coloured they are and tanned with the sunne: for you are not so soone past the Prasians country, but presently you are upon Indus: and among the mountains of this tract, the Pygmæans (by report) doe keepe. Artemidorus writeth, that betweene these two rivers, there is a distance of 21 miles.

The great river Indus, which the people of that countrey call Sandus,¹⁰⁶ issueth out of a part or dependance of the hill Caucasus, which is called Paropamisus: he taketh his course and runneth full against the sun-rising, and maketh 19 rivers more to loose their names, which he taketh in unto him. Among which, the principall are these, Hydaspes one, bringing with him foure more: and Cantabra another, accompanied with three besides. Moreover, of such as are of themselves navigable without the help of others, Acesines and Hypasis. And yet for all these additions, the river of Indus (such a sober and modest course as it were, his waters keepe) is in no place either above 50 stadia over, or deeper than 15 paces, i. threescore and fifteene foot, or twelve fadome and a halfe. This river encloseth within two braunches of it, a right great Island named Prasiane, and another that is lesse, which they call Patale. As for himselfe, they that have written of him with the least, say that hee beareth vessels for 1240 miles: and turning with the course of the sunne, keepeth him companie Westward, untill he is discharged into the Ocean. The measure of the sea-coast from Ganges unto him, I will set downe generally and in grosse, as I find it written: albeit there is no agreement at all of Authors, as touching this point. From the mouth of Ganges where he entreth into the sea unto the cape Caliugon¹⁰⁷ and the towne Dandagula, are counted 725 miles:¹⁰⁸ from thence to Tropina 1225 miles. Then to the promontorie of Perimula, where standeth the chiefe mart or towne of merchandise in all India, they reckon 750 miles: from which to the towne abovesaid Patale within the Island 620 miles. The mountainers inhabiting betweene it and Iomanes, are the Cesti and Celiboni,¹⁰⁹ wild and savage people: next to them, the Megallæ, whose king hath in ordinarie prest for service 500 Elephants; of foot and horsemen a great number, but uncertaine it is how many; sometime more, sometime fewer. As for the Chryseans, Parasangians, and Asangians,¹¹⁰ they are full of the wild and cruell tygres: they are able to arme 30000 foot and 800 horse, and to set out with furniture 300 Elephants. This countrey is on three sides environed and enclosed with a raunge of high mountaines: all desert and full of wildernesse for 625 miles, and of one side confined with the river Indus. Beneath those wild hills,¹¹¹ you enter among the Dari and Suræ; and then you come againe to wast deserts for 188 miles, compassed about for the most part with great barres and bankes of sand, like as the Islands with the sea. Under these desert forrests, you shall meet with the Maltecores, Cingians, Marobians, Rarungians, Moruntes, Masuæ, and Pangungæ.¹¹² Now for those who inhabite the mountaines, which in a continuall raunge without interruption stand upon the coasts of the Ocean, they are free states and subject to no prince, and many faire townes and cities they hold among these cliffes and craggie hills. Then come you to the Naræans, enclosed within the highest mountaine of all the Indian hills, Capitalia. On the other side of this mountaine, great store there is all over it, of gold and silver mines, wherein the inhabitants doe digge. Then, yee enter upon the kingdome of Oratura, whose king indeed hath but 10 Elephants in all, howbeit a great power of footmen. And so forward to the Varetates, who under their king keepe no Elephants at all for his service, trusting upon their Cavallerie and Fanterie, wherein they are strong. And next to them the Odomboërians and Salabastres, where standeth a goodly faire citie called Horata,¹¹³ environed and fortified with deepe fosses and ditches full of standing water:¹¹⁴ wherein there keepe a great number of Crocodiles, which for the greedie appetite they have to devoure mens bodies, will suffer none to passe into the towne, but over the bridge. Another towne there is besides among them, of great name and importance, to wit, Automela, standing upon the sea side: and otherwise much resort there is unto it of merchants from al parts, by reason of 5 great rivers which meet all there in one confluence. Their king maintaineth in ordinarie 1600 Elephants, 150000 footmen, and 5000 horse. The king of the Charmians is but poore to speake of, his strength lyeth in 60 Elephants; for his power otherwise is but small. Being past that realme, you come into the countrey of the Padians, the only nation of all the Indians, which is governed by women. One of this sexe, they say, was begotten sometime by Hercules, in which regard shee was the better accepted, and had the prerogative of the regencie over the greatest kingdome. From her the other Queens fetch their pedigree, and have the dominion and rule over thirtie great townes,¹¹⁵ and the commaund of 150000 foot and 500 Elephants. Beyond this realme, you come to the nation of the Syrieni, containing 300 cities: and from them to the Deraugæ, Posunge, Bugæ, Gogyarei, Umbræ, Nereæ, Brancosi, Nobundæ, Cocondæ, Nesei, Pedatritæ, Solobriasæ, and Olostræ, who confine upon the Island ¶ Patale: from the utmost point of which Island unto the gates Caspiæ, are reckoned 18025 miles. Now on this side the river Indus, just against them, as appeareth by evident demonstration, there dwell the Amatæ, Bolingæ, Gallitalutæ, Dimuri, Megari, Ordabæ, and Mesæ. Beyond them, the Uri and Sileni:¹¹⁶ and then you come to the deserts for 250 miles: which when yee have passed over, you shall meet with the Organages, the Abaorts, Sibaræ, and the Suertæ: and beyond these, a wildernesse againe, as great as the former. Passe on farther, you come among the Sarophages, Sorgæ, Baraomatæ, and the Gunbretes: of whome there be 13 severall nations, and each one hath two great cities apeece. As for the Aseni, they people three cities: their capital cite is Bucephala, built in the very place where king Alexanders horse called Bucephalus, was enterred. Above them, are the mountainers on the rising of the hill Caucasus, named Soleadæ and Sondræ: and when you are on the other side of the river Indus, as you goe along the coast and banks thereof, you shall see the Samarabrians, the Sambrucenes, the Brisabrites, Osij, Autixeni, and Taxillæ, with a famous citie called Amandra: of which all that tract now lying more flat and plaine within the countrey, is named Amandria.¹¹⁷ Foure other nations there are besides of Indians, the Peucolaitæ, Arsagalites, Geretes, and Asei: for many of the Geographers set not down Indus the river, for to determine the marches of the Indians Westward; but lay thereto 4 other provinces and severall seignories, to wit, of the Geodrosians, Arachotes, Arij, and Paropamisades.

Other writers are of opinion, that the utmost frontier and limit of India, is the river Cophetes, and both it and all those quarters are included within the territorie or province of the Arij: yea and most of them affirme, that the citie Nysa, as also the mountaine Merus consecrated to god Bacchus, belong unto India as parcels thereof. This is that mountaine whereof arose the poëticall fable, That Bacchus therein was borne and issued out of Iupiter his thigh. Likewise they assigne and lay to India, the countrey of the Aspagores, so plentifull in vines, laurels, and box, and generally of all sorts of apple trees and other fruitfull trees that grow within Greece.¹¹⁸ Many straunge, wonderfull, and in maner fabulous things, they report of the fertilitie of that land, of the dives sorts of corne, of trees bearing cotton, of wild beasts, of birds, and other creatures there breeding and living: which because they are not properly belonging to this treatise now in hand, I will reserve them for another part of this worke, and write more particularly of them in their due and severall places. And as for those 4 provinces or Satrapies, which I touched before, I will speake of them soone after and within a while: for now I hasten and think it long untill I have said somwhat of the Island Taprobane. And yet before I come to it, there be other Isles which I cannot passe by, and namely that of Patala, which I noted to lye in the verie mouth of the river Indus, and it carrieth the forme and fashion of a triangle figure, and is 220 miles long. Without the mouth of the river Indus, two other Islands there be, Chryse and Agyræ, so named (as I thinke) of the gold and silve mines which they doe yeeld: for I cannot easily beleeve, that the verie earth and soile there is all gold and silver entire, as some have made report.¹¹⁹ Twentie miles from them, lyeth the Isle Crocala: and 12 miles farther into the sea, Bibaga, where, of oysters and other shell-fishes called Purples, are found good store. And last of all, nine miles beyond it, Toralliba¹²⁰ sheweth it selfe, and many other petie Islands of no regard.

It hath beene of long time thought by men in auncient dayes, that Taprobane was a second world, in such sort as many have taken it to be the place of the Antipodes, and called it, The Antichthones world. But after the time of Alexander the Great, and the voiage of his armie into those parts, it was discovered and knowne for a truth, both that it was an Island, and what compasse it bare. Onesicratus the Admirall of his fleet, hath written, that the Elephants bred in this Island be bigger, more fierce and furious for war-service, than those of India: Megasthenes saith, that there is a great river which parteth it in twaine, and that the people thereof dwelling along the river, be called Palæogoni:¹²¹ adding moreover, that it affourdeth more gold, and bigger pearles by far, than India doth. Eratosthenes also tooke the measure thereof, and saith, that in length it beareth 7000 stadia, and in bredth 5000: that in it there be no cities & great towns, but villages to the number of 700.¹²² It beginneth at the Levant sea of Orientall Indians, from which it stretcheth and extendeth betweene the East and West of India: and was taken in times past to lye out into the sea from the Prasian countrey twentie dayes sailing. But afterwards, for that the boates and vessels used upon this sea in the passage thither, were made and wound of papyr reeds like those of the river Nilus, and furnished with the same kind of tacklng, the voyage thither from the foresaid countrey was gaged within a lesse time: and well knowne it was, that according to the saile of our ships and gallies, a man might arrive there in seven daies. All the sea lying betweene, is verie ebbe, full of shallowes and shelves, no more than five fathom deepe. Howbeit in certain chanels that it hath, it is so deepe that it cannot be sounded, neither will any ancres reach the botome and there rest: and withall, so streight and narrow these channels are, that a ship cannot turne within them: and therefore to avoid that necessitie of turning about in these seas, the ships have proes at both ends, and are pointed ech way.¹²³ In sailing, they observe no starre at all. As for the North pole, they never see it: but they carrie ever with them certaine birds in their shippes, which they send out oftentimes when they seeke for land, observing ever their flight; for knowing well that they will flie to land, they accompanie them, and bend their course accordingly: neither use they to saile more than one quarter in the yeere: and for one hundred dayes after the sunne is entred into Cancer, they take most heed and never make saile; for during that time it is winter season with them. And thus much we come to knowledge of, by relation of auncient writers. But wee came to farre better intelligence, and more notable information, by certaine Embassadours comming out of that Island, in the time of Claudius Cæsar the Emperour: which happened upon this occasion and after this manner. It fortuned, that a freed slave of Annius Plocamus, who had fermed of the Exchequer the customes for impost of the red sea, as he made saile about the coasts of Arabia, was in such wise driven with the North winds besides the realme of Carmania, and that for the space of 15 dayes, that in the end hee fell with an harbour thereof called Hippuros, and there arrived. When was was set on land, he found the king of that countrey so courteous, that hee gave him entertainment for 6 moneths, and entreated him with all kindnesse that could be devised. And as he used to discourse and question with him about the Romanes and their Emperour, he recounted unto him at large of all things. But among many other reports that he heard, he wondred most of all at their justice in all their dealings, and was in love therewith, and namely, that their Denieres of the money which was taken were alwais of like weight, notwithstanding that the sundry stamps and images upon the peeces shewed plainly that they were made by divers persons. And hereupon especially was he mooved and sollicited to seeke for the alliance and amitie of the people of Rome: and so dispatched 4 Embassadours of purpose, of whom one Rachias was the chiefe and principall personage. By these Embassadours we were enformed of the state of that Island, namely, that it contained five hundred great towns in it: and that there was a haven therin regarding the South coast, lying hard under Palesimundum¹²⁴ the principall citie of all that realme, and the kings seat and pallace: that there were by just account 200000 of commoners and citizens: moreover, that within this Iland there was a lake 270¹²⁵ miles in circuit, containing in it certaine Islands good for nothing else but pasturage, wherein they were fruitfull; out of which lake there issued two rivers, the one, Palesimundus, passing neere to the citie abovesaid of that name, and running into the haven with three streames, whereof the narrowest was five stadia broad, and the largest 15; the other Northward on India side, named Cydara: also that the next cape of this countrey to India, is called Colaicum¹²⁶ from which to the neerest port of India is counted four daies sailing: in the mids of which passage, there lyeth in the way, the Iland of the Sunne. They said moreover, that the water of this sea was all of a deepe greene colour; and more than that, full of tres growing within it: insomuch as the pylots with their helmes many times brake off the heads and tops of those trees. The starres about the North pole, called Septentriones, the Waines or Beares, they wondred to see here among us in our Hemisphere: as also the Brood-hen, called Vergiliæ in Latine, as if it had been another heaven. They confessed also they never saw with them, the moone above the ground before it was 8 dayes old, nor after the 16 day. That the Canopus, a goodly great and bright starre about the pole Antarcticke, used to shine all night with them. But the thing that they marveiled and were most astonied at was this, that they observed the shadows of their own bodies fell to our Hemisphere, and not to theirs; and that the sunne arose on their left hand and set on their right, rather than contrariwise. Furthermore they related, that the front of that Iland of theirs which looked toward India, contained 10000 stadia, and reached from the Southeast beyond the mountains Enodi.¹²⁷ Also, that the Seres were within their kenning, whom they might easily discover from out of this their Island; with whome they had acquaintance by the meanes of trafficke and merchandise: and that Rachias his father used many times to travaile thither. Affirming moreover, that if any straunger came thither, they were encountred and assailed by wild and savage beasts: and that the inhabitants themselves were giants of stature, exceeding the ordinarie proportion of men, having red haire, eies of colour blewish, their voice for sound horrible, for speech not distinct nor intelligible for any use of trafficke and commerce. In all things else their practise is the same that our merchants and occupiers doe use: for on the farther side of the river, when wares and commodities are laid downe, if they list to make exchaunge they have them away, and leave other merchandise in lieu thereof to content the forrein merchant. And verily no greater cause have we otherwise to hate and abhor this excessive superfluitie, than to cast our eye so far and consider with our selves, what it is that we seeke for, from what remote parts we fetch it, and to what end we so much desire all this vanitie. But even this Island Taprobane, as farre off as it is, seeming as it were cast out of the way by Nature, and divided from all this world wherein we live, is not without these vices and imperfections wherewith we are tainted and infected. For even gold and silver also is there, in great request and highly esteemed: and marble, especially if it be fashioned like a tortoise shell. Iemmes and precious stones; pearles also, such as be orient and of the better sort, are highly prised with them: and herein consisteth the verie heigth of our superfluous delights. Moreover, these Embassadours would say, that they had more riches in their Island, than wee at Rome, but we more use thereof than they. They affirmed also, that no man with them had any slaves to commaund: neither slept they in the morning after day-light, ne yet at all in the day time. That the manner of building their houses was low, somewhat raised above the ground and no more adoe: that their markets were never deare, nor price of victuals raised. As for courts, pleading of causes, and going to law, they knew not what it meant. Hercules was the onely god whome they worshipped. Their king was always chosen of the people: wherein they had these regards; that hee were aged, mild, and childlesse: but in case hee should beget children afterward, then hee was deposed from his regall dignitie, to the end that the kingdome should not in processe of time be hereditarie and held by succession, but by election onely. This king being thus chosen and invested, hath thirtie other governours assigned unto him by the people: neither can any person bee condemned to death, unlesse hee be cast by the more part of them, and pluralitie of voices: and thus condemned as hee is, yet may hee appeale unto the people. Then there are 70 judges deputed to sit upon his cause: and if it happen that they assoile and quit this partie condemned: then those 30 who condemned him, are displaced from their state and dignitie, with a most bitter and greevous rebuke, and for ever after, as disgraced persons live in shame and infamie. As for the king, arraied he is in aparrell as prince Bacchus went in old time: but the subjects and common people are clad in the habit of Arabians. If it fortune that the king offend, death is his punishment: howbeit, no man taketh in hand to doe execution. All men turne away their faces from him, and deigne him not a looke nor a word. But to doe him to death in the end, they appoint a solemne day of hunting, right pleasant and agreeable unto Tygres and Elephants, before which beasts they expose their king, and so he is presently by them devoured. Moreover, in that Island good husbands they are for their ground, and til the same most diligently. Vines have they no use of at all: for all sorts of fruits otherwise they have abundance. They take also a great pleasure and delight in fishing, and especially in taking of tortoisses: and so great they are found there, that one of their shels will serve to cover an house: and so the inhabitants doe employ them in steed of roufes. They count an hundred yeeres no long life there: that is the ordinarie time of their age. Thus much we have learned and knowne touching Taprobane. It remaineth now to say somewhat of those four Satrapies or provinces, which we did put off unto this place. Of them therefore as followeth.

Beyond those nations that confine hard upon the river Indus, as ye turne toward the mountaines, yee enter upon the realme of Capissæne, wherein sometime stood the citie Capissa, which Cyrus the king caused to bee rased. At this day there standeth the citie Arachosia, with a river also of that name in the countrey Arachosia: which citie some have called Cophe, founded by queene Semiramis. There likewise is to be seen the river Hermandus, which runneth by Abeste, a citie of the Arachosians.¹²⁸ The next that confront Arachosia Southward, toward part of the Arachotes, are the Gedrosi: and on the North side, the Paropamisades. As for the towne Cartana, named afterwards Tetragonius, situate it is at the foot of the mountain Caucasus. This countrey lieth overagainst the Bactrians: then you come to the principall towne thereof Alexandria, named so of king Alexander the founder thereof: upon the marches whereof are the Syndari, Dangulæ, Porapiani, Cantaces, and Maci. Moreover, upon the hill Caucasus standeth the towne Cadrusi, built likewise by the said Alexander.¹²⁹ On this side all these regions lieth the coast of the river Indus.¹³⁰ Then followeth the region of the Arianes, all scorched and senged with the parching heat of the Sunne, and environned about with deserts: howbeit, many shaddowie vallies lie betweene to allay the exceeding heat. Well peopled it is about the two rivers especially, Tonderos and Arosapes. Therein standeth the citie Artacoana. Being past it, the river Arius runneth under the citie Alexandria, built by Alexander the great. The towne containeth in compasse 30 stadia. Then come you to Artacabane, a cittie as it is much more auncient, so it is also fairer by farre, which by Antiochus the king was walled the second time, and enlarged to 50 stadia. The next in order is the nation of the Dorisci.¹³¹ The rivers Pharnacotis and Ophradus. Prophtasia, a towne in Zarasparia. The Drangæ, Argetæ,¹³² Zarangæ, and Gedrusij. Townes moreover, Peucolais and Lymphorta. After you are past their territorie, you enter into the deserts of the Methoricanes: and so to the river Manain, and the nation of the Augutturi. The river Borru,¹³³ the people called Urbi, the navigable river Ponamus,¹³⁴ which passeth through the marches of the Pandanes. Over and besides, the river Ceberon within the countrey of the Sorares,¹³⁵ which in the mouth thereof where it falleth into the sea, maketh many baies and harbours. As you go farther, you come upon the towne Candigramma, with the river Cophes: into which there runne other rivers that carrie vessels, to wit, Sadarus, Paraspus, and Sodinus. As for the countrey Darius, some would have it to be a part of Ariana, and they set downe the measure of them both together, to be in length 1950 miles,¹³⁶ and in breadth lesse by halfe than India. Others have set down that the countrey of the Gedrusians and Scyrians may containe 183 miles. Being passed which quarters, you enter into the region of the Ichthyophagi, surnamed Oritæ or Mountainers (who have a proper language by themselves, and speake not in the Indian tongue) which reacheth on still for 200 miles. And beyond it you meet with the people of the Arbians, who likewise continue for other 200 miles. As for those Ichthyophagi beforenamed, Alexander by an expresse edict forbad them all to feed on fish.¹³⁷ Being past them, you are in the deserts: and beyon them you come into Carmania, Persis, and Arabia. But before that we treat distinctly of these countries, I thinke it meet to set downe what Onesicritus (who having the conduct of a fleet under Alexander the great, sailed from off India, about the Southerly coasts of Persis) reporteth, according to those intelligences which came lately from king Iuba. In like manner those voiages of ours for these yeeres past performed, by which even at this day wee are guided. Howbeit, in the reports made by Onesicritus and Nearchus of their navigations, we find neither the distance, ne yet the names of the severall resting places, after every daies journey. And to begin with the citie Xylenepolis built by Alexander, from which they entred first into their voiage, it is not put downe by them, either in what place it is situate, nor upon what river. Yet these particulars following are by them reported worth remembrance: to wit, that in this voiage Nearchus founded a town in those parts: that the river Nabrus¹³⁸ runneth therby, and is able to bear great vessels: overagainst which there is an Island 70 stadia within the sea. Moreover, that Leonatus caused Alexandria to be built in the frontiers of that region, by direction and commaundement from king Alexander, where the river Argenus¹³⁹ entereth into the sea, and yeeldeth a safe and commodious haven. Also that the river Tuberum¹⁴⁰ is navigable, along the bankes whereof the Parites¹⁴¹ inhabite. And after them the Ichthyophagi, who take up so long a tract, that they were 20 daies¹⁴² sailing by their coasts. They make relation likewise of the Island of the Sun, named also the couch or bed of the nimphs:¹⁴³ This Island is red all over, and no living creature will live therein, but is consumed and perisheth no man knoweth how or upon what cause. ¹⁴⁴ They speake besides of the nation of the Orians: as also of Hytanis a river in Carmania, which affourdeth many baies and harbours, yea, and plentie of gold in the gravell and sand thereof. And here was the first place wherein they observed, that they had a sight of the North-pole starre. As for the starre Arcturus, they affirmed, that they saw it not every night, nor at any time all night long. Furthermore, that the countrey of the Achæmenides in Persea, reached thus farre. Over and besides, that as they travelled, ordinarily they found good store of mines, wherein was digging for brasse, yron, Arsenicke or Sardaracha,¹⁴⁵ and Vermillion.¹⁴⁶ And then they came to the cape of Carmania: from which to the coast overagainst them of the Maræ, a people in Arabia, the cut over sea is 50 miles. Upon these coasts they discovered three Islands, whereof Organa¹⁴⁷ onely is inhabited, by reason of fresh waters within it, and from the continent it lieth about 25 miles. And foure Islands more they fell upon, even in the Persian gulfe overagainst Persia. And about these Islands they might see sea-adders and serpents so monstrous great, that as they came swimming toward them, they put the very fleet in great fright, for there were among them some, 20 cubites long. Beyond it they met with the Island Acrotadus: likewise the Gaurates Isles, wherein the nation of the Chiani doe inhabite. About the middle of this gulfe or arme of the sea, the river Hiperis hath his course, able to bear great hulkes and ships of burden. Also the river Sitiogagus, upon which a man may passe in seven daies to Pasargadia. Also a river that is navigable called Phirstimus,¹⁴⁸ and an Island within it, but it is namelesse. As for the river Granius which runneth through Susiane, it carrieth but small vessels. Along the coast on the right hand of this river dwell the Deximontanes, who dresse and prepare Bitumen. Then they come to the river Oroatus,¹⁴⁹ with a dangerous haven or mouth where it falleth into the sea, unlesse a man be guided by skilfull pilots: and full against this river there are discovered two little Islands. Past which, the sea is very low and shallow, full of shelves and sands, more like a meere and marish water, than a sea. Howbeit, there bee certaine trenches or channels in it that draw deepe water, wherein they may without daunger saile. Then met they with the mouth of the river Euphrates. Also the lake, which the two rivers Eulæus and Tigris doe make, neere unto Characum. And so from thence they arrived upon the river Tigris, at Susa. And there an end of the navigation performed by Onesicritus and Nearchus. For after they had beene three months embarked and in their voiage upon the sea, they found Alexander at Susa (where he feasted and made solemne bankets) and that was seven months after he parted from them at Patælæ. And thus much concerning the voiage of Alexander his fleet. Now afterwards from Syagrus, a Promontorie in Arabia, it was counted unto Patale 1332 miles, and held it was for certain then, that the West wind which the people of that countrey call Hypalus, was thought most proper for to make saile to the same place. Howbeit the age ensuing discovered a shorter and safer cut, namely, if from the said promontorie or cape Syagrus, they set their course directly to the mouth of the river Zizerus¹⁵⁰ which maketh an harborough in India. And in truth this passage held a long time, untill such time that in the end the merchants found out a more compendious and shorter course, and gained by their voiage to India: for every yeere now they saile thither, and for feare of pirates and rovers that were wont very much to infest and annoy them, they used to embarke in their ships certain companies of Archers. And seeing that all thse seas are now discovered, and never before so certainely, I will not thinke much of my paines, to declare and shew the whole course of our Indian voiages from out of Ægypt. And first and formost this is a thing worthie to be noted and observed of every man, that there is not a yeere goeth over our heads, but it costs our State to furnish a voiage into India, 500 hundred thousand Sesterces, i. fiftie millions of Sesterces. For which the Indians sendeth backe againe commodities and merchandise of their owne, which being at Rome, are sold for an hundred times as much as they cost, or yeeld in the price an hundredfold gaine. But to returne againe to our voiage, from Alexandria in Ægypt, it is two miles to Iuliopolis: from whence upon the river of Nilus, they saile 303 miles to Coptus, which may be done in twelve daies space, having the Etesian winds at the poupe. From Coptus they travell forward upon Cammels backs: and for great default of water in those parts, there be certaine set places for bait, lodging, and watering. The first is called Hydreuma, 32 miles from Coptus. The second one daies journey from thence, in a certaine mountaine. The third watering place at another Hydreuma, 95 miles from Coptus.¹⁵¹ The fourth againe in a second mountaine. The fifth is a third Hydreuma of Apollo, from Coptus 184 miles. Beyond which, the resting place is upon another hill. And then to Hydreuma the new, from Coptus 234 miles.¶¶ Another water towne there is, called Hydreuma the old, named also Troglodyticum, where two miles out of the port way lieth a garrison, keeping watch and ward both day and night: and foure miles distant it is from new Hydreuma. From whence they travell to the towne Berenice, an haven towne standing upon the red sea, 258 miles from Coptus. But for as much as the journey all this way is for the most part performed in the night season, by reason of the excessive heat, and the travellers are forced to rest all the day long, therefore twelve daies are set down for the whole voiage betweene Coptus and Berenice. The time then that they usually begin to set saile, is about Midsummer before the dog daies, or presently upon the rising of the dog starre. And about the 30 daies end they arrive at Ocelis in Arabia, or els at Cama,¹⁵² within Saba, the countrey of incense.¹⁵³ A third port there is besides called Muza, unto which there is no resort of merchants out of India: neither is it in request but with merchants that adventure onely for incense, drugs, and spices of Arabia. Howbeit, peopled this countrey is within-forth, and hath divers great townes. Of which, Saphar is the principall, and the kings seat: and another besides of good importance called Sabe. But for them that would make a voiage to the Indians, the most commodious place to st forward is Ocelis: for from thence, and with the West wind called Hypalus, they have a passage of fortie daies sailing to the first towne of merchandise in India, called Muziris. Howbeit a port this is, not greatly in request, for the daunger of pirates and rovers, which keepe ordinarily about a place called Hydræ:¹⁵⁴ and besides that, it is not richly stored and furnished with merchandise. And more than so, the harborough is farre from the towne, so as they must charge and discharge their ware too and fro in little boats. At the time when I wrote this storie, the king that reigned there, was named Celebothras. But another haven there is more commodious, belonging to the Necanidians, which they cal Becare: the kings name at this present is Pandion: not far off is another town of merchandise within the firme land, called Madusa. As for that region, from whence they transport pepper in small punts or troughes made of one peece of wood, it is named Cotona.¹⁵⁵ And yet of all these nations, havens, and townes, there is not a name found in any of the former writers. By which it appeareth, that there hath been great change and alteration in these places. But to come againe to India, our merchants returne from thence back in the beginning of our moneth December, which the Ægyptians call Tybis:¹⁵⁶ or at farthest before the sixt day of the Ægyptians month Machiris, and that is before the Ides of Ianuarie:¹⁵⁷ and by this reckoning they may passe to and fro, and make returne within the compase of one yeer. Now when they saile from India, they have the Northeast wind Vulturnus with them: and when they are entred once into the red sea, the South or Southwest. Now will we return to our purposed discourse as concerning Carmania. The coast where after the reckoning of Nicearchus may take in circuit 12050 miles. From the first marches thereof to the river Sabis is counted 100 miles. From whence all the way as farre as to the river Andaius,¹⁵⁸ the countrey is rich and plenteous, for in it are vineyards and corne fields, well husbanded. This whole tract is called Amuzia.¹⁵⁹ The principal towns of Carmania be Zetis and Alexandria. Upon the marches of this realme, the sea breaketh into the land in two armes: which our countreymen are wont to call the red sea, and the Greekes Erythræum, of a king named Erythras: or (as some thinke) because the sea by reason of the reflection and beating of the Sunne beames, seemeth of a reddish colour. There be that suppose that this rednesse is occasioned of the sand and ground which is red: and others againe, that the very water is of the owne nature so coloured.

This red sea is divided into two armes: that from the East is named the Persian gulfe, & beareth in compasse 2500 miles, by the computation of Eratosthenes. Overagainst this gulfe is¹⁶⁰ Arabia, which lieth in length 1200 miles. On the other side another arme there is of it called the Arabian gulfe, which runneth into the Ocean, called Azanius. The mouth of the Persian gulfe where it maketh entrance, is five miles over, and some have made it but foure. From which to the furthest point thereof, taketh a direct and streight measure by a line, and for certaine it is knowne that it containeth 1125 miles: and is fashioned like for all the world to a mans head. Onesicritus and Nearchus have written, That from the river Indus to the Persian gulfe, & so from thence to Babylon by the meeres and fennes of the river Euphrates, it is 2500 miles. In an angle of Carmania inhabit the Chelonophagi, i. such as feed upon the flesh of Tortoises, and the shels of them serve for roufes to cover their cottages. They inhabite all that coast along the river Arbis, even to the very cape: rough they are, hairie all their bodie over but their heads, and weare no other garment but fish skinnes.

When you are passed this tract of the Chelonophagi, directly toward India, there lieth fiftie miles within the sea, the Island Cassandrus, by report all desert and not inhabited: and neere unto it, with a little arme of the sea betweene, another Island called Stois; wherein pearles are good chaffer, and yeeld gainefull trafficke. But to returne again to Carmania, when you are beyond the utmost cape therof, you enter presently upon the Armozei, who joine upon the Carmanians. But some say, that the Arbij are between both: and that their coasts may contain in the whole 402 miles.¹⁶¹ There are to bee seene the port or haven of the Macedonians, & the alters or columnes which Alexander erected upon the very promontorie & utmost cape. Where also be the rivers Saganos, Daras, and Salsos. Beyond which is the cape Themisceas,¹⁶² and the Island Aphrodisias well peopled. Then beginneth the realme of Persis, which extendeth to the river Oroatus, that devideth it from Elymais. Overagainst the coasts of Persis, these Islands bee discovered, Philos,¹⁶³ Cassandra, and Aratia,¹⁶⁴ with an exceeding high mountaine in it: and this Island is held consecrated unto Neptune. The very kingdome of Persis Westward hath the coasts lying out in length 450 miles.¹⁶⁵ The people are rich, and given to roiall and superfluous expense in all things: and long since it is, that they are become subject unto the Parthians, and carie their name. And seeing that we are come to mention them, we will breefely now speake of their Empire and dominion. The Parthians have in all 18 realmes under them: for so they tearmed all their provinces, as they lie devided about the two seas, as we have before said:¹⁶⁶ namely the red sea Southward, and the Hircane sea, toward the north. Of which, eleven that lie above in the countrey, and are called the higher provinces, they take their beginning at the confines & marches of Armenia, and the coasts of the Caspians of the one side: and reach to the Scythians, whom they confront of the other side, with whom they converse and keepe companie together as equals. The other seven are called the base or lower Realmes. As for the Parthians, their land was alwaies counted to lie at the foot and descent of those mountaines, whereof we have so often spoken, which doe environ and enclose all those nations. It confineth Eastward upon the Arij, and Southward, upon Carmania and the Arians: on the West side it butteth upon the Pratites and Medes:¹⁶⁷ and on the North, boundeth upon the realme of Hircania: compassed round about with deserts and mountaines. The utmost nations of the Parthians before yee come to those deserts be called Nomades: and their cheefe townes seated toward the West, are Issaris¹⁶⁸ and Calliope, whereof wee have written before: but toward the Northeast, Europum;¹⁶⁹ and Southeast, Mania.¹⁶⁹ In the heart and midland standeth the citie Hecatompylos, as also Arsacia. And there likewise the noble region of Nysæa in Parthyerum: together with the famous citie Alexandropolis, bearing the name of Alexander the first founder.

Requisite now it is and needful in this place to describe the positure and situation of the Medians kingdom, and to discover all those countries round about, as farre as to the Persian sea, to the end that the description of other regions hereafter to bee mentioned, may the better bee understood. Wherein this first and formost is to bee observed, that the kingdome of Media on the one side or other confronteth both Persis and Parthia, and casting forth a crooked and winding home as it were toward the West, seemeth to enclose within that compasse both the said realmes. Neverthelesse, on the East side it confineth upon the Parthians and Caspians: on the South, Sittacene, Susiane, and Persis: Westward, Adiabene: and Northward, Armenia. As for the Persians, they alwaies confronted the red sea, wherupon it was called the Persian gulfe. Howbeit, the maritime coast thereof is called Cyropolis, and that part which confineth upon Media, Elymais.¹⁷¹ In this realme there is a strong fort called Megala, in the ascent of a steepe high hill, so direct upright, that a man must mount up to it by steps and degrees, and otherwise the passage is very streight and narrow. And this way leadeth to Persepolis the head citie of the whole kingdome, which Alexander caused to bee rased. Moreover, in the frontiers of this Realme, standeth the citie Laodicea, built by king Antiochus. From whence as you turn into the East, the strong fort or castle Passagarda¹⁷² is seated, which the sages or wise men of Persia called Magi, doe hold, and therein is the tombe of Cyrus. Also the citie Ecbatana belonging to these sages, which Darius the king caused to be translated into the mountaines.¹⁷³ Betweene the Parthians and the Arians lie out in length the Parotacenes. These nations and the river Euphrates serve to limit and bound the seven lower realmes beforenamed. Now are we to discourse of the parts remaining behind of Mesopotamia; setting aside one point and corner thereof, as also the nations of Arabia, wherof we spake in the former booke.¹⁷⁴ This Mesopotamia was in times past, belonging wholly to the Assyrians, dispersed into petie villages and burgades, all save Babylon and Ninus. The Macedonians were the first, that after it came under their hands reduced it into great citties, for the goodnesse and plentie of their soile and territorie. For now besides the abovenamed townes, it hath in it, Seleucia, Laodicea, and Artemita: likewise within the quarters of the Arabians named Aroei and Mardani,¹⁷⁵ Antiochea: and that which being founded by Nicanor, governour of Mesopotamia, is called Arabis. Upon these join the Arabians, but well within the countrey are the Eldamarij. And above them is the cittie Bura, situate upon the river Pelloconta: beyond which are the Salmanes and Maseans, Arabians. Then there joine to the Gordiæans those who are called Aloni,¹⁷⁶ by whom the river Zerbis passeth, & so discharged into Tigris. Neere unto them are the Azones & Silices, mountainers, together with the Orentians: upon whom confronteth the citie Gaugamela on the West side. Moreover, there is Sue¹⁷⁷ among the rocks: above which are the Sylici & Classitæ,¹⁷⁸ through whom Lycus the river runneth out of Armenia. Also, toward the Southeast, Abisitris,¹⁷⁹ and the town Azochis. Anon you come down into the plains & champion countrey, where you meet with these towns, Diospage, Posytelia,¹⁸⁰ Stratonicea, and Anthemus. As for the citie Nicephorium, as we have once alreadie said,¹⁸¹ it is seated neere to the river Euphrates, where Alexander the great caused it to bee founded, for the pleasant seat of the place, and the commoditie of the countrey there adjoining. Of the citie Apamia we have before spoken in the description of Zeugma: from which, they that goe Eastward meet with a strong fortified towne, in old time carying a pourprise and compasse of 65 stadia,¹⁸² called the roiall pallace of their great dukes and potentates, named Satrapæ, unto which from all quarters men resorted to pay their imposts, customes, and tributes: but now it is come to be but a fort and castle of defence. But there continue still in their entier and as flourishing state as ever they were, the citie Hebata and Oruros, unto which by the fortunate conduct of Pompey the Great, the limits and bounds of the Romane Empire were extended; and it is from Zeugma 250 miles.¹⁸³ Some writers make report, that the river Euphrates was divided by a governour of Mesopotamia, and one arme thereof brought to Gobaris, even in that place where wee said it parted in twaine:¹⁸⁴ which was done for feare least one day or other the river with his violent streame should endaunger the citie of Babylon. They affirme moreover, that the Assyrians generally called it ¶¶¶ Armalchar, which signifieth a royall river. Upon this new arme of the river aforesaid, there stood sometime Agrani, one of the greatest townes of that region, which the Persians caused to be utterly rased and destroyed.

As for the cittie of Babylon, the capitall citie of all the Chaldæan nations, for a long time carried a great name over all the world: in regard whereof, all the other parts of Mesopotamia and Assyria was named Babylonia: it contained within the walls 60 miles. The walls were 200 foot in height, and 50 thicke; reckoning to everie foot 3 fingers breadth more than our ordinarie measure.¹⁸⁵ Through the mids of this goodly great citie, passeth the river Euphrates: a wonderfull peece of worke, if a man consider both the one and the other. As yet to this day the temple of Iupiter Belus there standeth entire.¹⁸⁶ This prince was the first inventer of Astronomie. It is now growne into decay and lyeth wast and unpeopled, by reason that Seleucia the cittie standeth so neere it, which hath drawne from it all resort and traffick: and was for that purpose built by Nicator within 40 myles of it, in the verie confluent where the new arme of Euphrates is brought by a ditch to meet with Tigris: notwithstanding, surnamed it is Babylonia, a free state at this day and subject to no person: howbeit they live after the lawes and manners of the Macedonians. And by report, in this citie there are 600000 cittizens. As for the walls thereof, they do resemble an Eagle spreading her wings: and for the soile, there is not a territorie in all the East parts comparable to it in fertilitie. The Parthians in despight againe of this citie, and for to doe the like by it, as sometime was done to the old Babylon, built the citie Ctesiphon within three miles of it, in the tract called Chalonitis, even to dispeople and impoverish it: which now at this present is the head citie of the kingdome. But when they could doe little or no good thereby to discredit the said new Babylon, of late daies Vologesus their king founded another citie hard by, called Vologeso Certa.¹⁸⁷ Moreover, other cities there are besides in Mesopotamia, namely Hyparenum, a citie likewise of the Chaldæans, and ennobled for their learning as well as Babylon: situate upon the river Narragon, which gave the name unto that citie.¹⁸⁸ Howbeit the Persians caused this Hypparenum to be dismantled, and the walls thereof to be demolished.¹⁸⁹ There be also in this tract, the Orchenes toward the South: from whence is come a third sort of the Chaldæans, called Orcheni. Beeing past this region, you meet with the Notites, Orthophants, and Græciophants.¹⁹⁰ Nearchus and Onesicratus, who registred the voyage of Alexander the Great into the Indians, report, That from the Persian sea to the citie of Babylon by the river Euphrates, is 412 miles. But the later and moderne writers, doe count from Seleucia to the Persian gulfe, 490 miles. K. Iuba writeth, that from Babylon to Charax, is 175 miles.¹⁹¹ Some affirme moreover, that beyond Babylon, the river Euphrates maintaineth his entire course and keepeth one channell 87 miles, before that hee is divided into several braunches here and there, for to water the countrey: and that he holdeth on his course from his head to the sea, for the space of 1200 miles.¹⁹² This varietie of Authors as touching the measure, is the cause that a man may not so well resolve and conclude thereof, considering that even the very Persians agree not about the dimensions of their Scoenes and Parasanges,¹⁹³ but have divers measures of them. Whereas the river Euphrates giveth over his own channell, (which for the breadth thereof is a sufficient munition to it selfe) and beginneth to part into divers braunches, which it doth about the marches and confines of Charax, in all that tract neere adjoyning, great daunger there is of the Attalæ, a theevish nation of the Arabians, who presently set upon all passengers comming and going to and fro.¹⁹⁴ When ye are past this infamous and suspected region, you shall enter into the countrey of the Schenites. As for the Arabians called Nomades, they occupie all the coasts of the river Euphrates, as farre as to the deserts of Syria: from which place we said that he turned and tooke his way into the South, abandoning the deserts of Palmyrene.¹⁹⁵ To conclude, from the beginning and head of Mesopotamia, it is counted to Seleucia, if you passe upon the river Euphrates, 1125 miles: and from the red sea, if you goe by the river Tigris, 320 miles: from Zeugma 527 miles:¹⁹⁶ and to Zeugma from Seleucia in Syria upon the coast of our sea, is reckned 175 miles. And this is the very true and just latitude there, of the firme land betweene the two seas, to wit, the Persian gulfe, and the Syrian sea. As for the kingdome of Parthia, it may contain 944 miles. Finally, there is yet another towne of Mesopotamia upon the banke of Tigris, neere the place where the rivers meet in one, which they call Digba.

Meet also it is and convenient, to say somewhat of the river Tigris. It beginneth in the land of Armenia the greater, issuing out of a great source, and evident to be seene in the verie plaine: the place beareth the name of Elongosine.¹⁹⁷ The river it selfe so long as it runneth slow and softly, is named Diglito;¹⁹⁸ but when it beginneth once to carrie a more forcible streame, it is called Tigris, for the swiftnesse thereof; which in the Medians language, betokeneth a shaft.¹⁹⁹ It runneth into the lake Arethusa,²⁰⁰ which beareth up aflote all that is cast into it, and will suffer nothing to sinke: and the vapours that arise out thereof, carrie the sent of Nitre. In this lake there is but one kind of fish, and that entreth not into the channell of Tigris as it passeth through, no more than any fishes swim out of Tigris into the water of the lake. In his course and color both, he is unlike, and as he goeth may be discerned from the other: and when he is once past the lake and encountreth the great mountaine Taurus, he looseth himselfe in a certaine cave and hole in the ground, and so runneth under the hill, untill on the other side thereof hee breaketh forth againe and appeareth in his likenesse, in a place which is called Zoroanda. That it is the same river, it is evident by this, that he carrieth through with him and sheweth in Zoroanda, whatsoever was cast into him before he hid himselfe in the cave beforesaid. After this second spring and rising of his, he entreth into another lake and runneth through it likewise, named Thospites; and once againe taketh his way under the earth through certaine blind gutters, and 25 miles beyond he putteth forth his head about Nymphæum. Claudius Cæsar reporteth, that in the country Arrhene, the river Tigris runneth so neere unto the river Arsania, that when they both swell and their waters are out, they joyne both their streames together, yet so, as their water is not intermingled: for Arsanias being the lighter of the twaine, swimmeth and floteth over the other, for the space well-neer of 4 miles: but soone after, they part asunder, and Arsania turneth his course toward the river Euphrates, into which he entreth. But Tigris receiving into him certain goodly great rivers out of Armenia, to wit, Parthenis, Agnice, and Pharion,²⁰¹ and so dividing the Arabians and Troeans from the Adiabenes,²⁰² and by this meanes making as it were an Iland Mesopotamia beforesaid, after he hath passed by and viewed the mountaines of the Gordiæans neere unto Apamia a town of Mesene on this side Seleucia surnamed Babylonia 125 miles: dividing himselfe in two armes or channels, with the one he runneth Southward to Seleucia, watering as he goeth the countrey of Messene; and with the other windeth into the North: he goeth on the backe side of the said Mesene, and cutteth through the plaines of the Cauchians. Now when these two braunches are reunited againe, the whole is called Pasitrigis. Afte